Gestão de lixo eletrônico na China: políticas, projetos piloto e abordagens alternativas.
Como a maior exportadora de equipamentos elétricos e eletrônicos (EEE) e importadores de resíduos de equipamentos elétricos e eletrônicos (WEEE, também chamados de lixo eletrônico) em todo o mundo, a China desempenha um papel fundamental no ciclo de vida global da eletrônica. Este artigo analisa a estrutura existente para a gestão de lixo eletrônico na China, incluindo políticas regulatórias e projetos-piloto. O governo chinês tem sido ativo na criação de uma estrutura legislativa e institucional para realizar a reciclagem de lixo eletrônico. Projetos-piloto foram estabelecidos com a intenção de testar novos sistemas formais para substituir a reciclagem informal. Esses projetos geralmente não coletam lixo eletrônico suficiente, principalmente porque os recicladores informais pagam os consumidores pelo seu lixo eletrônico e os projetos-piloto não. Desafios à implementação de sistemas de reutilização / reciclagem de lixo eletrônico específicos à situação chinesa são analisados e duas abordagens políticas alternativas são propostas para lidar com esses desafios. A primeira abordagem política proposta é um sistema que compartilha responsabilidade financeira entre consumidores, fabricantes e governo. O sistema inclui um depósito devolvido aos consumidores como um incentivo para transformar o lixo eletrônico. A segunda proposta é, quando apropriado, incluir um canal de lixo eletrônico que combine setores informais e formais, com o setor informal cuidando da coleta e reutilização e o setor formal responsável pelo desmantelamento e reciclagem.
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Projeto, implementação e avaliação de um sistema de rede da Internet das Coisas (IoT) para o gerenciamento de resíduos alimentares de restaurantes.
Empresas de catering em todo o mundo geram enormes quantidades de lixo; aqueles na China não são exceção. O documento discute o projeto, a implementação e a avaliação de uma tecnologia de rede de Internet das Coisas (IoT) baseada em sensores para melhorar o gerenciamento do desperdício de comida de restaurante (RFW) na cidade de Suzhou, China. Este sistema baseado em IoT engloba a geração, coleta, transporte e descarte final de RFW. O estudo de caso de Suzhou compreendeu quatro etapas: (1) exame da funcionalidade exigida de um sistema habilitado para IoT no contexto específico de Suzhou; (2) configuração da arquitetura do sistema, tanto de software quanto de hardware, de acordo com a funcionalidade identificada; (3) instalação dos componentes do sistema IoT nas instalações das partes interessadas em toda a cadeia de valor de geração-coleta-transporte-descarte de RFW; e (4) avaliação do desempenho de todo o sistema, com base em dados de três anos de operação. Os resultados mostram que o sistema teve um forte impacto. Os resultados positivos incluem: (1) melhor gerenciamento da geração de RFW, como evidenciado por um aumento de 20,5% no RFW coletado por canais oficiais e um aumento de 207% no número de geradores de RFW sob contrato oficial; (2) melhor aplicação da lei em resposta à má conduta da RFW, possibilitada pelas capacidades de monitoramento do sistema IoT; e (3) uma redução geral nas atividades de RFW ilícitas e melhor otimização do processo ao longo da cadeia de valor da RFW. Os resultados negativos incluem: (1) As etiquetas de identificação por radiofrequência (RFID) precisam ser renovadas com frequência devido ao manuseio freqüente de lixeiras, aumentando assim os custos operacionais; (2) os sensores de peso dinâmicos / automáticos apresentavam um grau de erro maior do que o método de pesagem estática / manual mais demorado; e (3) houve divergências entre as agências governamentais da cidade sobre como interpretar dados do sistema IoT, o que levou a algumas ineficiências na gestão. Em suma, o sistema Suzhou IoT possibilitou o gerenciamento orientado por dados do RFW e teve um impacto positivo líquido para as partes interessadas envolvidas.
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Sindicatos: Associações Voluntárias e Direitos Individuais.
Richard Whiting.
Este ensaio explora o papel dos sindicatos e a relação entre as organizações individuais e coletivas em um sistema político liberal. No século XX, os sindicatos britânicos tinham um lugar aceito na vida nacional, entre outras associações. Os vínculos entre os membros e seus sindicatos são avaliados, particularmente em conexão com o movimento sindical, que ressurgiu no boom do pós-guerra depois de 1945. Mas o status dos sindicatos sofreu um declínio dramático no final dos anos 1970, quando o distintivo de Margaret Thatcher A retórica política sobre a importância do indivíduo foi dirigida particularmente à força contra eles. Embora os sindicatos tenham sido valiosos na defesa dos interesses das pessoas no trabalho, uma linha de pensamento persistente sempre questionou seu impacto na liberdade individual.
Informações sobre direitos autorais.
Autores e Afiliações.
Richard Whiting 1 1. Universidade de Leeds, Leeds, Reino Unido.
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Cloração da água.
A cloração da água é o processo de adição de cloro (Cl.
2) ou hipoclorito em água. Este método é usado para matar certas bactérias e outros micróbios na água da torneira, pois o cloro é altamente tóxico. Em particular, a cloração é usada para prevenir a propagação de doenças transmitidas pela água, como cólera, disenteria e febre tifóide.
História [editar]
Em um artigo publicado em 1894, foi formalmente proposto adicionar cloro à água para torná-lo "livre de germes". Duas outras autoridades endossaram essa proposta e a publicaram em muitos outros documentos em 1895. [1] As primeiras tentativas de implementar a cloração da água em uma estação de tratamento de água foram feitas em 1893 em Hamburgo, Alemanha, e em 1897 a cidade de Maidstone, Inglaterra. primeiro ter todo o seu abastecimento de água tratado com cloro. [2]
A cloração permanente da água começou em 1905, quando um filtro de areia lento defeituoso e um suprimento de água contaminada causaram uma grave epidemia de febre tifóide em Lincoln, Inglaterra. [3] Dr. Alexander Cruickshank Houston usou cloração da água para parar a epidemia. Sua instalação alimentou uma solução concentrada do chamado cloreto de cal para a água a ser tratada. Este não era simplesmente cloreto de cálcio moderno, mas continha cloro gasoso dissolvido em água de cal (hidróxido de cálcio diluído) para formar hipoclorito de cálcio (cal clorada). A cloração do abastecimento de água ajudou a deter a epidemia e, como precaução, a cloração continuou até 1911, quando foi instituído um novo suprimento de água. [4]
O primeiro uso contínuo de cloro nos Estados Unidos para desinfecção ocorreu em 1908 no Boonton Reservoir (no rio Rockaway), que servia como fornecimento para Jersey City, Nova Jersey. [5] A cloração foi obtida por meio de adições controladas de soluções diluídas de cloreto de cal (hipoclorito de cálcio) em doses de 0,2 a 0,35 ppm. O processo de tratamento foi concebido pelo Dr. John L. Leal, e a planta de cloração foi projetada por George Warren Fuller. [6] Nos próximos anos, a desinfecção com cloro usando cloreto de cal (hipoclorito de cálcio) foi rapidamente instalada em sistemas de água potável em todo o mundo. [7]
A técnica de purificação de água potável através do uso de gás cloro comprimido foi desenvolvida por um oficial britânico no Serviço Médico Indiano, Vincent B. Nesfield, em 1903. Segundo seu próprio relato, "ocorreu-me que o gás cloro poderia ser A próxima pergunta importante foi como tornar o gás portátil, o que pode ser feito de duas maneiras: liquefazendo-o e armazenando-o em vasos de ferro revestidos de chumbo, tendo um jato com um canal capilar muito fino e equipado com uma torneira ou uma tampa de rosca. A torneira é ligada e o cilindro é colocado na quantidade de água necessária. O cloro borbulha e, em dez a quinze minutos, a água é absolutamente segura. Este método seria útil em larga escala, como para carrinhos de água de serviço. " [8]
O major Carl Rogers Darnall, professor de Química na Escola Médica do Exército, fez a primeira demonstração prática disso em 1910. [9] Este trabalho tornou-se a base para os sistemas atuais de purificação de água municipal. Pouco depois da demonstração de Darnall, o major William J. L. Lyster, do Departamento Médico do Exército, usou uma solução de hipoclorito de cálcio em um saco de linho para tratar a água.
Por muitas décadas, o método de Lyster permaneceu o padrão para as forças terrestres dos EUA no campo e nos campos, implementado na forma do familiar saco Lyster (também escrito Lister Bag). A tela "bolsa, água, esterilização" era um componente comum das cozinhas de campo, distribuídas uma por 100 pessoas, de uma capacidade padrão de 36 litros que pendia de um tripé muitas vezes improvisado no campo. Em uso desde a Primeira Guerra Mundial até a Guerra do Vietnã, ela foi substituída por sistemas de osmose reversa que produzem água potável comprimindo a água local através de filtros microscópicos: a Unidade de Purificação de Água por Osmose Inversa (1980) e o Sistema Tático de Purificação de Água ( 2007) para produção em larga escala, e a unidade Purificador de Água para necessidades de menor escala que inclui tecnologia de ultrafiltração para produzir água potável de qualquer fonte e utiliza ciclos de retrolavagem automatizados a cada 15 minutos para simplificar as operações de limpeza.
O cloro gasoso foi usado pela primeira vez em uma base contínua para desinfetar o suprimento de água na fábrica de filtros Belmont, na Filadélfia, Pensilvânia, usando uma máquina inventada por Charles Frederick Wallace, que o apelidou de Chlorinator. Foi fabricado pela Wallace & amp; Empresa Tiernan começando em 1913. [10] Em 1941, a desinfecção da água potável dos EUA pelo gás cloro substituiu amplamente o uso de cloreto de cal. [11] [12]
A cloração também pode ser praticada com hipoclorito de sódio ou vários outros produtos químicos.
Bioquímica [editar]
Como halogênio, o cloro é um desinfetante altamente eficiente e é adicionado ao abastecimento público de água para matar os patógenos causadores de doenças, como bactérias, vírus e protozoários, que comumente crescem em reservatórios de abastecimento de água, nas paredes de adutoras e tanques de armazenamento. [13] Os agentes microscópicos de muitas doenças, como cólera, febre tifoide e disenteria, matavam incontáveis pessoas anualmente antes que os métodos de desinfecção fossem empregados rotineiramente. [13]
O cloro é fabricado a partir do sal por eletrólise ou outros métodos. É um gás à pressão atmosférica, mas se liquefaz sob pressão. O gás liquefeito é transportado e usado como tal.
Como um forte agente oxidante, o cloro mata através da oxidação de moléculas orgânicas. [13] O ácido cloroso e o ácido clorídrico do cloro e da hidrólise têm uma carga neutra e, por conseguinte, penetram facilmente na superfície dos agentes patogénicos carregada negativamente. É capaz de desintegrar os lipídios que compõem a parede celular e reagir com enzimas e proteínas intracelulares, tornando-as não funcionais. Microorganismos então morrem ou não são mais capazes de se multiplicar. [14]
Princípios [edit]
Quando dissolvido em água, o cloro converte-se em uma mistura de equilíbrio de cloro, ácido hipocloroso (HOCl) e ácido clorídrico (HCl):
Em solução ácida, as principais espécies são Cl.
2 e HOCl, enquanto que na solução alcalina, efetivamente somente o ClO - (íon hipoclorito) está presente. Concentrações muito pequenas de ClO 2 -, ClO 3 -, ClO 4 - também são encontradas. [15]
Cloração de choque [editar]
A cloração por choque é um processo usado em muitas piscinas, poços de água, fontes e outras fontes de água para reduzir o resíduo bacteriano e de algas na água. A cloração por choque é realizada misturando-se uma grande quantidade de hipoclorito na água. O hipoclorito pode estar na forma de um pó ou líquido, como o alvejante de cloro (solução de hipoclorito de sódio ou hipoclorito de cálcio em água). A água que está sendo clorada por choque não deve ser levada ou embebida até que a contagem de hipoclorito de sódio na água desça para três partes por milhão (PPM) ou até que a contagem de hipoclorito de cálcio desça para 0,2 a 0,35 ppm. [citação necessário]
Desvantagens [edit]
Desinfecção por cloração pode ser problemática, em algumas circunstâncias. O cloro pode reagir com compostos orgânicos naturais encontrados no suprimento de água para produzir compostos conhecidos como subprodutos de desinfecção (DBPs). Os DBPs mais comuns são os trialometanos (THMs) e os ácidos haloacéticos (HAAs). Os trialometanos são os principais subprodutos desinfetantes criados a partir da cloração com dois tipos diferentes, o bromofórmio e o dibromoclorometano, que são os principais responsáveis pelos riscos à saúde. Seus efeitos dependem estritamente da duração de sua exposição aos produtos químicos e da quantidade ingerida no corpo. Em altas doses, o bromofórmio retarda principalmente a atividade cerebral normal, que se manifesta por sintomas como sonolência ou sedação. A exposição crônica de bromofórmio e dibromoclorometano pode causar câncer de fígado e rim, bem como doença cardíaca, inconsciência ou morte em altas doses. [16] Devido à potencial carcinogenicidade desses compostos, as regulamentações sobre água potável em todo o mundo desenvolvido exigem o monitoramento regular da concentração desses compostos nos sistemas de distribuição dos sistemas municipais de água. A Organização Mundial de Saúde afirmou que "os riscos para a saúde desses subprodutos são extremamente pequenos em comparação com os riscos associados à desinfecção inadequada". [17]
Há também outras preocupações com relação ao cloro, incluindo sua natureza volátil, que faz com que ele desapareça muito rapidamente do sistema de água, e preocupações organolépticas, como sabor e odor.
Métodos alternativos para desinfecção da água [editar]
Ozonação [editar]
A ozonização é usada por muitos países europeus e também em alguns municípios nos Estados Unidos e no Canadá. Essa alternativa é mais econômica, mas consome muita energia. Envolve o ozônio sendo borbulhado pela água, destruindo todos os parasitas, bactérias e todas as outras substâncias orgânicas prejudiciais. No entanto, este método não deixa resíduos de ozono para controlar a contaminação da água após a conclusão do processo. [18]
A vantagem do cloro em comparação com o ozônio é que o resíduo persiste na água por um longo período de tempo. Esse recurso permite que o cloro se desloque através do sistema de abastecimento de água, controlando efetivamente a contaminação do fluxo de retorno patogênico. Em um sistema grande isso pode não ser adequado, e assim os níveis de cloro podem ser aumentados em pontos no sistema de distribuição, ou cloramina pode ser usada, que permanece na água por mais tempo antes de reagir ou se dissipar.
Cloraminação [editar]
A cloraminação também está se tornando cada vez mais comum. A desinfecção com cloramina produz menos subprodutos indesejáveis do que o cloro (gás ou hipoclorito). A cloramina tem uma meia vida mais longa no sistema de distribuição e mantém uma proteção eficaz contra patógenos. As cloraminas persistem na distribuição devido ao seu menor potencial redox em comparação com o cloro livre. A cloramina é formada pela adição de amônia e cloro à água potável para formar monocloramina e / ou dicloramina. Enquanto o Helicobacter pylori pode ser muitas vezes mais resistente ao cloro que a Escherichia coli, ambos os organismos são igualmente suscetíveis ao efeito desinfetante da cloramina. [19]
Bromação e iodização [editar]
Cloro na água é mais de três vezes mais eficaz como um desinfetante contra Escherichia coli do que uma concentração equivalente de bromo, e mais de seis vezes mais eficaz do que uma concentração equivalente de iodo. [20]
Filtração em casa [editar]
A água tratada por filtração e filtração doméstica pode não precisar de mais desinfecção; uma proporção muito alta de patógenos é removida pelos materiais no leito do filtro. A água filtrada deve ser usada logo após ser filtrada, pois a baixa quantidade de micróbios remanescentes pode proliferar com o tempo. Em geral, esses filtros residenciais removem mais de 90% do cloro disponível para um copo de água tratada. Estes filtros devem ser periodicamente substituídos, caso contrário o conteúdo bacteriano da água pode realmente aumentar devido ao crescimento de bactérias dentro da unidade de filtragem. [18]
Radiação UV [editar]
A desinfecção por UV está ganhando popularidade. O tratamento com UV deixa resíduos mínimos na água. Na água, o UV gera ozônio in situ e, portanto, tem muitas das vantagens da desinfecção do ozônio. No entanto, a irradiação germicida ultravioleta sozinha (assim como a cloração sozinha) não removerá toxinas de bactérias, pesticidas, metais pesados, etc. da água.
Radiação ionizante [editar]
Como o UV, a radiação ionizante (raios X, raios gama e feixes de elétrons) tem sido usada para esterilizar a água.
Veja também [editar]
Água Potável Ato de Água Potável A hipoclorito de sódio Esterilização (microbiologia) Ácido tricloroisocianúrico a. k.a Symclosene, o químico em pastilhas de cloração Filtro de água Fluoretação da água Indústria da água Poluição da água Purificação da água Rede de abastecimento de água Tratamento da água.
Referências [editar]
^ F. E Turneaure; e H. L. Russell (1901). Abastecimento Público de Água: Requisitos, Recursos e Construção de Obras (1ª ed.). Nova Iorque: John Wiley & amp; Filhos. p. & # 160; 493. & # 160; ^ "Epidemia tifóide em Maidstone". Jornal do Instituto Sanitário. 18: 388. outubro de 1897. & # 160; ^ "Um milagre para a saúde pública?" . Retirado 2012-12-17. & # 160; ^ Reece, R. J. (1907). "Relatório sobre a epidemia de febre entérica na cidade de Lincoln, 1904-5." No Trigésimo Quinto Relatório Anual do Conselho do Governo Local, 1905-6: Suplemento Contendo o Relatório do Oficial Médico para 1905-6. Londres: Conselho do Governo Local. ^ Leal, John L. (1909). "A Planta de Esterilização da Companhia de Abastecimento de Água de Jersey City em Boonton, N. J." Proceedings American Water Works Association. pp. 100-9. ^ Fuller, George W. (1909). "Descrição do Processo e Planta da Companhia de Abastecimento de Água da Cidade de Jersey para a Esterilização da Água do Reservatório de Boonton." Procedimentos AWWA. pp. 110-34. ^ Hazen, Allen. (1916). Água limpa e como obtê-lo. Nova Iorque: Wiley. p. 102. ^ V. B. Nesfield (1902). "Um método químico de esterilização da água sem afetar a potabilidade". Saúde Pública: 601-3. & # 160; Dar Darnall CR (novembro de 1911). "A purificação da água pelo cloro anidro". Sou J Saúde Pública. 1 (11): 783-97. doi: 10.2105 / ajph.1.11.783. PMC & # 160; 2218881. PMID & # 160; 19599675. & # 160; ^ library. rit. edu/findingaids/Inventories/WallaceAndTiernanCompanyRecords. pdf ^ Hodges, L. (1977). Poluição Ambiental (2ª ed.). Nova York: Rinehart e Winston. p. & # 160; 189. & # 160; ^ Baker, Moses N. (1981). A busca por água pura: a história da purificação da água desde os primeiros registros até o século XX. 2ª edição. Vol. 1. Denver: American Water Works Association. p. 341-342. ^ a b c Calderon, R. L. (2000). "A Epidemiologia dos Contaminantes Químicos da Água Potável". Toxicologia Alimentar e Química. 38 (1 Supl): S13-S20. doi: 10.1016 / S0278-6915 (99) 00133-7. PMID & # 160; 10717366 & # 160; ^ Kleijnen, R. G. (16 de dezembro de 2011). O dilema do cloro (PDF). Universidade de Tecnologia de Eindhoven. Recuperado em 18 de janeiro de 2014. & # 160; [página & # 160; precisado] ^ Shunji Nakagawara, Takeshi Goto, Masayuki Nara, Youichi Ozaqa, Kunimoto Hotta e Yoji Arata (1998). "Caracterização Espectroscópica e Dependência do pH da Atividade Bactericida da Solução de Cloro Aquoso". Ciências analíticas. 14 (4): 691-698. doi: 10.2116 / analsci.14.691. & # 160; Manutenção CS1: Vários nomes: lista de autores (link) ^ "Declaração de Saúde Pública: Bromofórmio e Dibromoclorometano". ATSDR. 2011. & # 160; [citação completa necessária] Guidelines Diretrizes para a qualidade da água potável (PDF). Volume 1, Recomendações (terceira edição incorporando o primeiro e segundo aditamento ed.). Organização Mundial da Saúde. 2008. p. & # 160; 5. & # 160; ^ a b Neumann, H. (1981). "Segurança bacteriológica da água quente da torneira nos países em desenvolvimento". Saúde Pública, Rep.84: 812-814. ^ Baker KH, Hegarty JP, Redmond B, Reed NA, Herson DS (2002). "Efeito de Desinfetantes Oxidantes (Cloro, Monocloramina e Ozônio) no Helicobacter pylori" (PDF). Microbiologia Aplicada e Ambiental. 68 (2): 981-984. doi: 10.1128 / AEM.68.2.981-984.2002. PMC & # 160; 126689. PMID & # 160; 11823249. & # 160; ^ Koski TA, Stuart LS, Ortenzio LF (1º de março de 1966). "Comparação de Cloro, Bromo e Iodo como Desinfetantes para a Água da Piscina". Microbiologia Aplicada. 14 (2): 276-279. PMC & # 160; 546668. PMID & #; 4959984. & # 160;
Links externos [editar]
Cidade de Milwaukee, Wisconsin Desinfecção de Emergência da Água Potável (US EPA) Inventário Nacional de Poluentes - Água Potável Clorada de Cloro (Monografia da IARC) Relatório de Estudo da NTP TR-392: Clorado & amp; Águas cloraminadas (NIH dos EUA) As práticas de desinfecção da Divisão de Química do Cloro do Conselho Americano de Química ukwta /
1. Saneamento da piscina - O saneamento da piscina é o processo de garantir condições saudáveis em piscinas, banheiras de hidromassagem, piscinas de imersão e locais similares de água para recreação. O saneamento adequado é necessário para manter a claridade da água. Os Centros para Controle e Prevenção de Doenças dos Estados Unidos também fornecem informações sobre saneamento de piscinas e doenças relacionadas à água para profissionais de saúde, as principais organizações que fornecem certificações para operadores e técnicos de piscinas e spas são a National Swimming Pool Foundation e Association of Pool & amp; Profissionais de spa. As certificações são aceitas pelos departamentos de saúde estaduais e locais. Os contaminantes da piscina são introduzidos a partir de fontes ambientais e os nadadores, piscinas cobertas, são menos suscetíveis a contaminantes ambientais. Contaminantes introduzidos por nadadores podem influenciar dramaticamente a operação de piscinas internas e externas, além disso, a interação entre desinfetantes e contaminantes da água da piscina pode produzir uma mistura de cloraminas e outros subprodutos de desinfecção. A revista Environmental Science & amp; A tecnologia informou que o suor e a urina reagem com o cloro e produzem tricloramina e cloreto de cianogênio, as nitrosaminas são outro tipo de subprodutos de desinfecção que são motivo de preocupação como um risco potencial à saúde. O acessulfame de potássio é utilizado na dieta humana e excretado pelos rins. Ele tem sido usado pelos pesquisadores como um marcador para estimar até que ponto as piscinas são contaminadas pela urina. Estimou-se que uma piscina de 220.000 galões conteria cerca de 20 galões de urina. Os contaminantes patogênicos são a maior preocupação nas piscinas, pois têm se associado a inúmeras doenças recreativas aquáticas. Patógenos de saúde pública podem estar presentes em piscinas como vírus, bactérias, protozoários, diarréia é a doença mais comumente relatada associada a contaminantes patogênicos, enquanto outras doenças associadas com piscinas não tratadas são criptosporidiose e giardíase. Outras doenças comumente ocorridas em piscinas mal conservadas incluem otite externa, comumente chamada de ouvido de nadador, erupções cutâneas, contaminação pode ser minimizada por boas práticas de higiene do nadador como tomar banho antes e depois de nadar e não deixar crianças com distúrbios intestinais nadarem. Tratamentos efetivos são necessários para tratar contaminantes na água, pois impedem a introdução de contaminantes na piscina, patogênicos e não patogênicos. Um sistema de filtragem e recirculação de piscinas bem conservado e funcionando adequadamente é a primeira barreira no combate a contaminantes grandes o suficiente para serem filtrados, para matar patógenos e ajudar a prevenir doenças recreativas, os operadores de piscinas devem manter níveis adequados de cloro ou outro desinfetante. Com o tempo, o cálcio da água municipal tende a se acumular, desenvolvendo depósitos de sal nas paredes e equipamentos da piscina. O cálcio também absorve o cloro e impede o desempenho adequado dos produtos químicos adicionados, portanto, é aconselhável drenar completamente a piscina e enchê-la com água fresca ou reciclar a água da piscina existente, usando osmose reversa. A vantagem do método é que 90% da água pode ser reutilizada.
2. Cloro - O cloro é um elemento químico com símbolo Cl e número atômico 17. O segundo mais leve dos halogênios, aparece entre o flúor e o bromo na tabela e suas propriedades são na maioria intermediários entre eles. O cloro é um gás à temperatura ambiente. É um elemento extremamente reativo e um forte agente oxidante, entre os elementos, possui a maior afinidade eletrônica, sendo o composto mais comum de cloro, cloreto de sódio, conhecido desde a antiguidade. Por volta de 1630, o gás de cloro foi sintetizado pela primeira vez em uma reação química, Carl Wilhelm Scheele escreveu uma descrição do gás cloro em 1774, supondo que ele seja um óxido de um novo elemento. Em 1809, os químicos sugeriram que o gás poderia ser um elemento, e isso foi confirmado por Sir Humphry Davy em 1810. Devido à sua reatividade, todo o cloro na crosta terrestre está na forma de compostos de cloreto iônico. É o segundo halogênio mais abundante e o vigésimo primeiro elemento químico mais abundante na crosta terrestre, e esses depósitos crustais são, no entanto, ofuscados pelas enormes reservas de cloreto na água do mar. O cloro elementar é produzido a partir da salmoura por eletrólise. O alto potencial oxidante do cloro levou ao desenvolvimento de alvejantes comerciais e desinfetantes. Como um desinfetante comum, cloro elementar e compostos geradores de cloro são usados diretamente em piscinas para mantê-los limpos. Cloro elementar em altas concentrações é extremamente perigoso e venenoso para todos os organismos vivos, na forma de íons cloreto, o cloro é necessário para todas as espécies conhecidas da vida. Outros tipos de compostos são raros em organismos vivos. Na atmosfera superior, moléculas orgânicas contendo cloro, como clorofluorcarbonetos, têm sido implicadas na destruição do ozônio, pequenas quantidades de cloro elementar são geradas pela oxidação de cloreto a hipoclorito em neutrófilos como parte da resposta imune contra bactérias. Sua importância na alimentação era muito conhecida na antiguidade e às vezes era usada como pagamento de serviços para os generais romanos. Por volta de 1630, o cloro foi reconhecido como um gás pelo químico flamengo, o elemento foi estudado em detalhes em 1774 pelo químico sueco Carl Wilhelm Scheele, e ele é creditado com a descoberta. Ele chamou-o de ar de ácido muriático desfluxualizado, já que é um gás e ele não conseguiu estabelecer o cloro como um elemento, erroneamente pensando que era o óxido obtido a partir do ácido clorídrico. Ele nomeou o novo elemento dentro deste óxido como muriaticum, em 1809, Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac e Louis-Jacques Thénard tentaram decompor o ar ácido muriático difamado, reagindo-o com o carvão para liberar o elemento muriaticum livre.
3. Hipoclorito - Em química, o hipoclorito é um íon composto de cloro e oxigênio, com a fórmula química ClO−. Pode combinar com vários íons para formar hipocloritos. Exemplos comuns incluem hipoclorito de sódio e hipoclorito de cálcio, os hipocloritos são frequentemente bastante instáveis nas suas formas puras e por esta razão são normalmente tratados como soluções aquosas. Suas principais aplicações são como agentes de branqueamento, desinfecção e tratamento de água, uma variedade de hipocloritos pode ser formada por uma reação desproporcional entre gás de cloro e hidróxidos de metal. A reação deve ser realizada próximo à temperatura ambiente, pois ocorrerá oxidação a temperaturas mais elevadas, levando à formação de cloratos, e este processo é amplamente utilizado para a produção industrial de hipoclorito de sódio e hipoclorito de cálcio. Cl2 + 2 NaOH → NaCl + NaClO + H2O2Cl2 +2 Ca2 → CaCl2 + Ca2 + 2H2O Grandes quantidades de hipoclorito de sódio também são produzidas eletroquimicamente através de um processo de cloro-álcalis não separado. Neste processo, a solução salina é electrolisada para formar Cl2 que se dissocia em água para formar hipoclorito e esta reacção é realizada em água e depende da formação de sulfato de cálcio insolúvel, que irá precipitar da solução, conduzindo a reacção até à conclusão. Ca2 + MSO4 → M2 + CaSO4 O sistema imunológico humano gera quantidades mínimas de hipoclorito durante a destruição de patógenos. Isso ocorre dentro de glóbulos brancos especiais, chamados granulócitos neutrófilos, que englobam vírus e bactérias em um vacúolo intracelular chamado de fagossoma, parte do mecanismo de digestão envolve uma explosão respiratória mediada por enzima, que produz compostos derivados de oxigênio reativos, incluindo superóxido. Superóxido decai para oxigênio e peróxido de hidrogênio, que é usado em uma reação para converter cloreto em hipoclorito. A estabilidade é o fator na formação de sais de hipoclorito. Apenas o hipoclorito de lítio LiOCl, o hipoclorito de cálcio Ca2 e o hipoclorito de bário Ba2 foram isolados como compostos anidros, existe uma maior variedade de compostos em solução aquosa e, em geral, quanto maior a diluição, maior a sua estabilidade. Os sais de metais alcalinos diminuem em estabilidade ao longo do grupo, o hipoclorito de lítio anidro é estável à temperatura ambiente, no entanto o hipoclorito de sódio não é preparado mais seco do que o pentahidrato. Isto é instável acima de 0 ° C, embora as soluções mais diluídas encontradas como lixívia doméstica possuam melhor estabilidade, o hipoclorito de potássio é conhecido apenas em solução. Não é possível determinar tendências para os sais de metais da terra. O hipoclorito de berílio é inédito, no entanto, isso não é inesperado, já que o íon Be2 + não é conhecido em solução, o hipoclorito de magnésio puro não pode ser preparado, porém o MgOCl sólido é conhecido. O hipoclorito de cálcio é produzido em escala e apresenta boa estabilidade. O hipoclorito de estrôncio, Sr2, não está bem caracterizado e sua estabilidade ainda não foi determinada, os hipocloritos não formam complexos de coordenação estáveis com metais pesados e, portanto, não são ligantes viáveis.
4. Água - A água é uma substância química transparente e quase incolor que é o principal constituinte dos rios, lagos e oceanos da Terra, e os fluidos da maioria dos organismos vivos. Sua fórmula química é H2O, o que significa que sua molécula contém um oxigênio. A água refere-se estritamente ao estado líquido dessa substância, que prevalece na temperatura e pressão ambiente padrão, mas também se refere ao estado sólido ou gasoso. Também ocorre na natureza como neve, glaciares, blocos de gelo e icebergs, nuvens, neblina, orvalho, aqüíferos. A água cobre 71% da superfície da Terra. É vital para todas as formas de vida. Apenas 2,5% dessa água é água doce e 98,8% dessa água está no gelo e nas águas subterrâneas. Menos de 0. 3% de toda a água doce é em rios, lagos e a atmosfera, uma quantidade maior de água é encontrada no interior da Terra. A água na Terra se move continuamente através do ciclo de evaporação e transpiração, condensação e precipitação. A evaporação e a transpiração contribuem para a precipitação sobre a terra; grandes quantidades de água também são quimicamente combinadas ou adsorvidas em minerais hidratados. Água potável segura é essencial para os seres humanos e outros, mesmo que não forneça calorias ou nutrientes orgânicos. Existe uma correlação entre o acesso a água potável e o produto interno bruto per capita. No entanto, alguns observadores estimaram que até 2025 mais da metade da população enfrentará vulnerabilidade baseada na água. Um relatório, divulgado em novembro de 2009, sugere que, até 2030, nas regiões em desenvolvimento do mundo. A água desempenha um papel importante na economia mundial, aproximadamente 70% da água doce usada pelos seres humanos vai para a agricultura. A pesca em sal e corpos de água doce é uma fonte de alimento para muitas partes do mundo. Much of long-distance trade of commodities and manufactured products is transported by boats through seas, rivers, lakes, large quantities of water, ice, and steam are used for cooling and heating, in industry and homes. Water is an excellent solvent for a variety of chemical substances, as such it is widely used in industrial processes. Water is also central to many sports and other forms of entertainment, such as swimming, pleasure boating, boat racing, surfing, sport fishing, Water is a liquid at the temperatures and pressures that are most adequate for life. Specifically, at atmospheric pressure of 1 bar, water is a liquid between the temperatures of 273.15 K and 373.15 K.
5. Tap water – Tap water is water supplied to a tap. Its uses include drinking, washing, cooking, and the flushing of toilets, Tap water became common in many regions during the 20th century, and is now lacking mainly among people in poverty, especially in developing countries. Tap water is often assumed to be drinking water, especially in developed countries. Usually it is potable, although water quality problems are not rare, household water purification methods such as water filters, boiling, or distillation can be used when tap waters potability is doubted. The application of technologies involved in providing water to homes, businesses. Publicly available treated water has historically been associated with increases in life expectancy. Water-borne diseases are vastly reduced by proper sewage and fresh water availability, specific chemical compounds are often taken out of tap water during the treatment process to adjust the pH or remove contaminants, and chlorine may be added to kill biological toxins. Local geological conditions affecting groundwater are determining factors for the presence of metal ions. Tap water remains susceptible to biological or chemical contamination, in the event of contamination deemed dangerous to public health, government officials typically issue an advisory regarding water consumption. In the case of contamination, residents are usually advised to boil their water before consumption or to use bottled water as an alternative. In the case of contamination, residents may be advised to refrain from consuming tap water entirely until the matter is resolved. In many areas a compound of fluoride is added to tap water in an effort to improve health among the public. In some communities fluoridation remains a controversial issue and this supply may come from several possible sources. Municipal water supply Water wells Processed water from creeks, streams, rivers, lakes, rainwater, domestic water systems have been evolving since people first located their homes near a running water supply, such as a stream or river. The water flow also allowed sending waste water away from the residences, modern indoor plumbing delivers clean, safe, potable water to each service point in the distribution system. It is important that the water not be contaminated by the waste water side of the process system. Historically, this contamination of drinking water has been the largest killer of humans, Tap water can sometimes appear cloudy, often mistaken for mineral impurities in the water. It is usually caused by air coming out of solution due to change in temperature or pressure.
6. Hamburg – Hamburg, officially Freie und Hansestadt Hamburg, is the second largest city in Germany and the eighth largest city in the European Union. It is the second smallest German state by area and its population is over 1.7 million people, and the wider Hamburg Metropolitan Region covers more than 5.1 million inhabitants. The city is situated on the river Elbe, the official long name reflects Hamburgs history as a member of the medieval Hanseatic League, a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire, a city-state, and one of the 16 states of Germany. Before the 1871 Unification of Germany, it was a sovereign state. Prior to the changes in 1919, the civic republic was ruled by a class of hereditary grand burghers or Hanseaten. Though repeatedly destroyed by the Great Fire of Hamburg, the floods and military conflicts including WW2 bombing raids, the city managed to recover and emerge wealthier after each catastrophe. On the river Elbe, Hamburg is a port and a global service, media, logistics and industrial hub, with headquarters and facilities of Airbus, Blohm + Voss, Aurubis, Beiersdorf. The radio and television broadcaster NDR, Europes largest printing and publishing firm Gruner + Jahr, Hamburg has been an important financial centre for centuries, and is the seat of Germanys oldest stock exchange and the worlds second oldest bank, Berenberg Bank. The city is a fast expanding tourist destination for domestic and international visitors. It ranked 16th in the world for livability in 2015, the ensemble Speicherstadt and Kontorhausviertel was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO in 2015. Hamburg is a major European science, research and education hub with several universities and institutes and its creative industries and major cultural venues include the renowned Elbphilharmonie and Laeisz concert halls, various art venues, music producers and artists. It is regarded as a haven for artists, gave birth to movements like Hamburger Schule. Hamburg is also known for theatres and a variety of musical shows. St. Paulis Reeperbahn is among the best known European entertainment districts, Hamburg is on the southern point of the Jutland Peninsula, between Continental Europe to the south and Scandinavia to the north, with the North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the north-east. It is on the River Elbe at its confluence with the Alster, the city centre is around the Binnenalster and Außenalster, both formed by damming the River Alster to create lakes. The island of Neuwerk and two neighbouring islands Scharhörn and Nigehörn, in the Hamburg Wadden Sea National Park, are also part of Hamburg. The neighbourhoods of Neuenfelde, Cranz, Francop and Finkenwerder are part of the Altes Land region, neugraben-Fischbek has Hamburgs highest elevation, the Hasselbrack at 116.2 metres AMSL. Hamburg has a climate, influenced by its proximity to the coast.
7. Maidstone – Maidstone is the county town of Kent, England,32 miles south-east of London. The River Medway runs through the centre of the town, linking it with Rochester, historically, the river was a source and route for much of the towns trade as the centre of the agricultural county of Kent, known as the Garden of England. There is evidence of a settlement in the area dating back to before the Stone Age, the town is in the borough of Maidstone. In 2011, the town had a population of 113,137, maidstones economy has changed over the years from being involved in heavy industry, to more light industry and service industries. Saxon charters show the first recorded instances of the name, de maeides stana and maegdan stane. The latter meaning may refer to the nearby megalith around which took place. The name evolved through medestan/meddestane in the Domesday Book with possible variation Mayndenstan, the modern name appeared by 1610. It has been suggested that the name derives from stones set into the river to allow clothes to be rinsed in the water away from the banks. Neolithic finds have revealed the earliest occupation of the area, the Normans set up a shire moot, and religious organisations established an abbey at Boxley, hospitals and a college for priests. Today’s suburb of Penenden Heath was a place of execution in medieval times, maidstones charter as a town was granted in 1549, although briefly revoked, a new charter in 1551 created the town as a borough. The charter was ratified in 1619 under James I, and the coat of arms was designed, bearing a golden lion, recently to these arms were added the head of a white horse, a golden lion and an iguanodon. The iguanodon relates to the discovery in the 19th century of the remains of that dinosaur. Maidstone has had the right to a town gaol since 1604, during the English Civil War, the Battle of Maidstone took place in 1648, resulting in a victory for the Parliamentarians. Paper mills, stone quarrying, brewing and the industry have all flourished here. The paper maker James Whatman and his son invented wove paper at Turkey Mill from 1740, a permanent military presence was established in the town with the completion of cavalry barracks in 1798. Invicta Park Barracks is now home to the 36 Engineer Regiment, Maidstone Prison is north of the town centre and was completed in 1819. Modern Maidstone incorporates a number of outlying villages and settlements, the county council offices to the north of the town centre were built of Portland stone between 1910 and 1913. On 29 September 1975 a local pub serving Invicta Park Barracks, The Hare, Maidstone General Hospital opened on the outskirts of the town in 1983, replacing West Kent General Hospital, which opened 150 years earlier in Marsham Street.
8. Slow sand filter – Slow sand filters are used in water purification for treating raw water to produce a potable product. They are typically 1 to 2 metres deep, can be rectangular or cylindrical in section and are used primarily to treat surface water. The length and breadth of the tanks are determined by the flow rate desired by the filters, slow sand filters differ from all other filters used to treat drinking water in that they work by using a complex biological film that grows naturally on the surface of the sand. The sand itself does not perform any filtration function but simply acts as a substrate, unlike its counterparts for UV, slow sand filters now are also being tested for pathogen control of nutrient solutions in hydroponic systems. This installation provided filtered water for every resident of the area, snow was sceptical of the then-dominant miasma theory that stated that diseases were caused by noxious bad airs. Although the germ theory of disease had not yet been developed and his data convinced the local council to disable the water pump, which promptly ended the outbreak. The Metropolis Water Act introduced the regulation of the supply companies in London. The Act made provision for securing the supply to the Metropolis of pure and wholesome water and this was followed up with legislation for the mandatory inspection of water quality, including comprehensive chemical analyses, in 1858. This legislation set a precedent for similar state public health interventions across Europe. The Metropolitan Commission of Sewers was formed at the time, water filtration was adopted throughout the country. Slow sand filters work through the formation of a layer called the hypogeal layer or Schmutzdecke in the top few millimetres of the fine sand layer. The Schmutzdecke is formed in the first 10–20 days of operation and consists of bacteria, fungi, protozoa, rotifera, as an epigeal biofilm ages, more algae tend to develop and larger aquatic organisms may be present including some bryozoa, snails and Annelid worms. The surface biofilm is the layer that provides the effective purification in potable water treatment, as water passes through the hypogeal layer, particles of foreign matter are trapped in the mucilaginous matrix and soluble organic material is adsorbed. The contaminants are metabolised by the bacteria, fungi and protozoa, the water produced from an exemplary slow sand filter is of excellent quality with 90-99% bacterial cell count reduction. Slow sand filters slowly lose their performance as the biofilm thickens, eventually, it is necessary to refurbish the filter. Two methods are used to do this. In the first, the top few millimetres of fine sand is scraped off to expose a new layer of clean sand, Water is then decanted back into the filter and re-circulated for a few hours to allow a new biofilm to develop. The filter is then filled to full volume and brought back into service, the filter column is then filled to full capacity and brought back into service.
9. Lincoln, England – Lincoln is a cathedral city and the county town of Lincolnshire, within the East Midlands of England. The non-metropolitan district of Lincoln has a 2012 population of 94,600, the 2011 census gave the entire urban area of Lincoln a population of 130,200. Lincoln developed from the Roman town of Lindum Colonia, which developed from an Iron Age settlement, Lincolns major landmarks are Lincoln Cathedral, a famous example of English Gothic architecture, and Lincoln Castle, an 11th-century Norman castle. The city is home to the University of Lincoln and Bishop Grosseteste University. See Lincoln City F. C. for Lincoln City Football Club, the earliest origins of Lincoln can be traced to the remains of an Iron Age settlement of round wooden dwellings that have been dated to the 1st century BC. This settlement was built by a pool in the River Witham at the foot of a large hill. The extent of original settlement is unknown as its remains are now buried deep beneath the later Roman and medieval ruins. The Celtic name Lindon was subsequently Latinised to Lindum and given the title Colonia when it was converted into a settlement for army veterans, the conversion to a colonia was made when the legion moved on to York in AD71. It became a flourishing settlement, accessible from the sea both through the River Trent and through the River Witham. Subsequently, however, the town and its waterways fell into decline, by the close of the 5th century the city was largely deserted, although some occupation continued under a Praefectus Civitatis, for Saint Paulinus visited a man of this office in Lincoln in AD629. During this period the Latin name Lindum Colonia was shortened in Old English to become first Lindocolina, after the first destructive Viking raids, the city once again rose to some importance, with overseas trading connections. After the establishment of the Danelaw in 886, Lincoln became one of the Five Boroughs in the East Midlands, excavations at Flaxengate reveal that this area, deserted since Roman times, received new timber-framed buildings fronting a new street system in about 900. Lincoln experienced an explosion in its economy with the settlement of the Danes. By 950, however, the banks of the Witham were newly developed with the Lower City being resettled and the suburb of Wigford quickly emerging as a major trading centre. In 1068, two years after the Norman conquest, William I ordered Lincoln Castle to be built on the site of the former Roman settlement, for the strategic reasons. The rebuilt Lincoln Minster, enlarged to the east at each rebuilding, was on a magnificent scale, its crossing tower crowned by a spire reputed to have been 525 ft high, the highest in Europe. When completed the central of the three spires is widely accepted to have succeeded the Great Pyramids of Egypt as the tallest man-made structure in the world, when Magna Carta was drawn up in 1215, one of the witnesses was Hugh of Wells, Bishop of Lincoln. One of only four surviving originals of the document is preserved in Lincoln Castle, theologian William de Montibus was the head of the cathedral school and chancellor until his death in 1213.
10. United States – Forty-eight of the fifty states and the federal district are contiguous and located in North America between Canada and Mexico. The state of Alaska is in the northwest corner of North America, bordered by Canada to the east, the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific Ocean. The U. S. territories are scattered about the Pacific Ocean, the geography, climate and wildlife of the country are extremely diverse. At 3.8 million square miles and with over 324 million people, the United States is the worlds third - or fourth-largest country by area, third-largest by land area. It is one of the worlds most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, paleo-Indians migrated from Asia to the North American mainland at least 15,000 years ago. European colonization began in the 16th century, the United States emerged from 13 British colonies along the East Coast. Numerous disputes between Great Britain and the following the Seven Years War led to the American Revolution. On July 4,1776, during the course of the American Revolutionary War, the war ended in 1783 with recognition of the independence of the United States by Great Britain, representing the first successful war of independence against a European power. The current constitution was adopted in 1788, after the Articles of Confederation, the first ten amendments, collectively named the Bill of Rights, were ratified in 1791 and designed to guarantee many fundamental civil liberties. During the second half of the 19th century, the American Civil War led to the end of slavery in the country. By the end of century, the United States extended into the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the status as a global military power. The end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 left the United States as the sole superpower. The U. S. is a member of the United Nations, World Bank, International Monetary Fund, Organization of American States. The United States is a developed country, with the worlds largest economy by nominal GDP. It ranks highly in several measures of performance, including average wage, human development, per capita GDP. While the U. S. economy is considered post-industrial, characterized by the dominance of services and knowledge economy, the United States is a prominent political and cultural force internationally, and a leader in scientific research and technological innovations. In 1507, the German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller produced a map on which he named the lands of the Western Hemisphere America after the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci.
11. Disinfection – Disinfectants are antimicrobial agents that are applied to the surface of non-living objects to destroy microorganisms that are living on the objects. Disinfectants are different from other agents such as antibiotics, which destroy microorganisms within the body, and antiseptics. Disinfectants are also different from biocides — the latter are intended to destroy all forms of life, Disinfectants work by destroying the cell wall of microbes or interfering with the metabolism. Sanitizer are substances that simultaneously clean and disinfect, Disinfectants are frequently used in hospitals, dental surgeries, kitchens, and bathrooms to kill infectious organisms. Bacterial endospores are most resistant to disinfectants, but some viruses, an alternative term used in the sanitation sector for disinfection of waste streams, sewage sludge or fecal sludge is sanitisation or sanitization. A perfect disinfectant would also complete and full microbiological sterilisation, without harming humans and useful form of life, be inexpensive. However, most disinfectants are also, by nature, potentially harmful to humans or animals, most modern household disinfectants contain Bitrex, an exceptionally bitter substance added to discourage ingestion, as a safety measure. Those that are used indoors should never be mixed with other cleaning products as chemical reactions can occur, the choice of disinfectant to be used depends on the particular situation. Some disinfectants have a spectrum, while others kill a smaller range of disease-causing organisms but are preferred for other properties. There are arguments for creating or maintaining conditions that are not conducive to survival and multiplication. Bacteria can increase in very quickly, which enables them to evolve rapidly. Should some bacteria survive an attack, they give rise to new generations composed completely of bacteria that have resistance to the particular chemical used. Under a sustained attack, the surviving bacteria in successive generations are increasingly resistant to the chemical used. For this reason, some question the wisdom of impregnating cloths, cutting boards, air disinfectants are typically chemical substances capable of disinfecting microorganisms suspended in the air. Disinfectants are generally assumed to be limited to use on surfaces, in 1928, a study found that airborne microorganisms could be killed using mists of dilute bleach. An air disinfectant must be dispersed either as an aerosol or vapour at a sufficient concentration in the air to cause the number of infectious microorganisms to be significantly reduced. In principle, these substances are ideal air disinfectants because they have both high lethality to microorganisms and low mammalian toxicity. The engineering challenge associated with creating a sufficient concentration of the glycol vapours in the air have not to date been sufficiently addressed, Alcohols are most effective when combined with distilled water to facilitate diffusion through the cell membrane, 100% alcohol typically denatures only external membrane proteins.
12. Rockaway River – The Rockaway River is a tributary of the Passaic River, approximately 35 mi long, in northern New Jersey in the United States. The upper course of the flows through a wooded mountainous valley, whereas the lower course flows through the populated New Jersey suburbs. It drains an area of approximately 130 sq mi and it rises at the eastern edge of Sussex County and within a few hundred yards enters Morris County, in the Highlands, along the northwestern slope of Green Pond Mountain south of Oak Ridge. It flows SSW, in a course between in the valley between the mountain ridges. Northeast of Wharton it emerges from the mountains and flows generally east in a course, past Wharton, Dover, Rockaway, Denville and Boonton. The gorge begins with the impressive 25 foot Boonton Falls and it continues for a little over 1 mile dropping around 120 feet per mile through nearly continuous class 3 and 4 whitewater. On the south side of Boonton it is impounded to form the Boonton Reservoir, downstream from the reservoir dam it flows south, through Lake Hiawatha, where the river splits and joins again. It then flows through Parsippany and into Hatfield Swamp, where it is joined by the Whippany River, beaver brook is a stream that flows through a swamp and enters the Rockaway River in Denville. In the 19th century the river connected to the Morris Canal near Wharton and served as a transportation link for shipping coal. The communities of Wharton, Dover, and Boonton were important iron processing towns in the early 19th century, with a concentration of forges. The significant pollution problem in the course of the river has been somewhat alleviated by legislation. The isolated upper course of the river is a popular site for smallmouth bass fishing. The New Jersey Fish and Game stocks the river in many sections with rainbow, many fisherman find enjoyment in fishing the river. The river is shown in the movie, The Station Agent, the Rockaway River has the potential to cause flooding in the area of Denville that is north of the central business district, including residential areas along the river. During the massive flooding following Hurricane Irene in August 2011, the Rockaway River crested approx,6 feet above its previous record flood level. The flooding was considered to be a 500 year event, the downtown Denville business district and surrounding residential areas were flooded, by in some places up to 8 feet of water. As silt has accumulated in the basin, the average depth of the river has steadily decreased. Since the flooding of Irene there has no problems reported with the river overreaching its banks.
13. Jersey City, New Jersey – Jersey City is the second-most-populous city in the U. S. state of New Jersey after Newark. It is the seat of Hudson County as well as the countys largest city. 7% from the 2010 United States Census, when the citys population was at 247,597, ranking the city the 75th-largest in the nation. Part of the New York metropolitan area, Jersey City is bounded on the east by the Hudson River and Upper New York Bay and on the west by the Hackensack River and Newark Bay. After a peak population of 316,715 measured in the 1930 Census, the land comprising what is now Jersey City was inhabited by the Lenape, a collection of tribes. After spending nine days surveying the area and meeting its inhabitants, by 1621, the Dutch West India Company was organized to manage this new territory and in June 1623, New Netherland became a Dutch province, with headquarters in New Amsterdam. Michael Reyniersz Pauw received a grant as patroon on the condition that he would establish a settlement of not fewer than fifty persons within four years. He chose the west bank of the North River and purchased the land from the Lenape and this grant is dated November 22,1630 and is the earliest known conveyance for what are now Hoboken and Jersey City. Pauw, however, was a landlord who neglected to populate the area and was obliged to sell his holdings back to the Company in 1633. That year, a house was built at Communipaw for Jan Evertsen Bout, superintendent of the colony, during Kiefts War, approximately eighty Lenapes were killed by the Dutch in a massacre at Pavonia on the night of February 25,1643. Scattered communities of farmsteads characterized the Dutch settlements at Pavonia, Communipaw, Harsimus, Paulus Hook, Hoebuck, Awiehaken, and other lands behind Kil van Kull. The first village established on what is now Bergen Square in 1660, among the oldest surviving houses in Jersey City are the Newkirk House, the Van Vorst Farmhouse, and the Van Wagenen House. During the American Revolutionary War, the area was in the hands of the British who controlled New York, in the Battle of Paulus Hook Major Light Horse Harry Lee attacked a British fortification on August 19,1779. During the 19th century, former slaves reached Jersey City on one of the four routes of the Underground Railroad that led to the city. The City of Jersey was incorporated by an act of the New Jersey Legislature on January 28,1820, from portions of Bergen Township, while the area was still a part of Bergen County. The city was reincorporated on January 23,1829, and again on February 22,1838, on February 22,1840, it became part of the newly created Hudson County. Soon after the Civil War, the idea arose of uniting all of the towns of Hudson County east of the Hackensack River into one municipality. A bill was approved by the legislature on April 2,1869. An element of the bill provide that only contiguous towns could be consolidated, while a majority of the voters across the county approved the merger, the only municipalities that had approved the consolidation plan and that adjoined Jersey City were Hudson City and Bergen City.
14. Calcium hypochlorite – Calcium hypochlorite is an inorganic compound with formula Ca2. As a mixture with lime and calcium chloride, it is marketed as chlorine powder or bleach powder for water treatment and this compound is relatively stable and has greater available chlorine than sodium hypochlorite. It is a solid, although commercial samples appear yellow. It strongly smells of chlorine, owing to its slow decomposition in moist air and it is not highly soluble in water and is more preferably used in soft to medium-hard water. It has two forms, dry and hydrated, Calcium hypochlorite is commonly used to sanitize public swimming pools and disinfect drinking water. Generally the commercial substance is sold with a purity of a 68%, for instance as a swimming pool chemical it is often mixed with cyanuric acid stabilizers and anti-scaling agents. Calcium hypochlorite is used in kitchens to disinfect surfaces and equipment. Other common uses include bathroom cleansers, household disinfectant sprays, algaecides, herbicides, Calcium hypochlorite is a general oxidizing agent and therefore finds some use in organic chemistry. For instance the compound is used to cleave glycols, α-hydroxy carboxylic acids, Calcium hypochlorite can also be used in the haloform reaction to manufacture chloroform. 3 Ca2 +2 2CO →2 CHCl3 +2 Ca2+ Ca2 Calcium hypochlorite is produced industrially by treating lime with chlorine gas, the reaction can be conducted in stages to give various compositions, each with different concentration of calcium hypochlorite, together with unconverted lime and calcium chloride. The full conversion is shown 2 Cl 2 +2 Ca 2 → Ca 2 + CaCl 2 +2 H 2O Bleaching powder is not a mixture of calcium hypochlorite, calcium chloride. Instead, it is a mixture consisting principally of calcium hypochlorite Ca2, dibasic calcium hypochlorite, Ca324 and it is made from slightly moist slaked lime. Calcium hypochlorite reacts with carbon dioxide to form carbonate and release dichlorine monoxide. This basicity is due to the performed by the hypochlorite ion, as hypochlorous acid is weak. The hydrated form is safer to handle.
15. John L. Leal – John Laing Leal was a physician and water treatment expert who, in 1908, was responsible for conceiving and implementing the first disinfection of a U. S. drinking water supply using chlorine. In 1862, his father, John R. Leal who was a physician, John R. Leal saw service in a number of areas during the Civil War including Folly Island during the Siege of Charleston, South Carolina. He contracted a case of amoebic dysentery at Folly Island from which he suffered for the next 19 years before the disease caused his death in 1882. In 1867, Dr. John R. Leal moved his family from Andes to the growing industrial city of Paterson. John L. Leal received his education at the Paterson Seminary. He attended Princeton College from 1876 to 1880, John L. Leal attended medical school at the Columbia College of Physicians and Surgeons from 1880 to 1884 where he received his medical degree. After obtaining his degree, Leal opened a medical practice in Paterson, New Jersey. Along with other physicians, he founded the outpatient clinic at Paterson General Hospital in 1887, in 1888, he married Amy Arrowsmith and their only son, Graham, was born within the year. Leals career in Paterson city government continued with his appointment as Health Inspector in 1891, as Health Officer, Leal was responsible for the identification of epidemics of communicable diseases and for the disinfection of the homes of the afflicted. He also oversaw the public supply and was responsible for constructing the growing network of sewers to remove domestic. To prevent the spread of diseases, he was responsible for building an Isolation Hospital in Paterson in 1897. He published several papers during his tenure as Health Officer including one described the cause of a waterborne typhoid fever outbreak in Paterson. In 1899, Leal left the service and became the sanitary adviser to the East Jersey Water Company. Toward the end of his life, Leal was President of the Board of Health for the City of Paterson, Leal belonged to a large number of professional associations. In 1884, he was elected a member of the Medical Society of New Jersey, in 1900, he was Vice President of that organization. In 1905, he was active in the State Medical Society, in 1903, Leal was president of the New Jersey Sanitary Association. On the program for the Sanitary Association meeting on December 4–5,1903 and these professionals interacted with one another throughout their careers. He was a member of the American Medical Association and the American Public Health Association, at the APHA annual meeting in 1897, Leal read a paper entitled, “House Sanitation with Reference to Drainage, Plumbing, and Ventilation”
16. George W. Fuller – George Warren Fuller was a sanitary engineer who was also trained in bacteriology and chemistry. His career extended from 1890 to 1934 and he was responsible for important innovations in water and wastewater treatment and he designed and built the first modern water filtration plant, and he designed and built the first chlorination system that disinfected a U. S. drinking water supply. In addition, he performed groundbreaking engineering work on sewage treatment facilities in the U. S and he was President of both the American Water Works Association and the American Public Health Association, and he was recognized internationally as an expert civil and sanitary engineer. George W. Fuller was born in Franklin, Massachusetts in 1868, after his primary and secondary education, he was accepted at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology at the age of 16. He deferred his attendance at MIT for one due to the death of his father. At MIT, he studied under William T, Sedgwick and completed his bachelors degree in chemistry in 1890. Sedgwick was able to send Fuller to Berlin, Germany to study under the engineer for the Berlin waterworks. During his stay in Berlin, Fuller studied bacteriology at the Hygiene Institute of the University of Berlin, after returning from Berlin, Fuller started working at the Lawrence Experiment Station in Lawrence, Massachusetts while still under the tutelage of William T. Sedgwick. While at LES, he investigated the treatment of sewage using filtration systems and his most important work was the study of filtration for potable water treatment. During the period 1895 to 1897, Fuller was hired by the City of Louisville, the focus of his investigations were on mechanical filtration treatment systems, which used filtration rates that were 60 times higher than those of slow sand filters. Aluminum sulfate was added prior to filtration to form particles that would be amenable to filtration. Fuller learned from his Louisville work when he designed the investigations at Cincinnati, from 1897 to 1899, Fuller investigated mechanical filtration using the addition of aluminum sulfate followed by a sedimentation step before the final filtration process. After completing the Cincinnati filtration report, Fuller opened a single person consulting practice in New York City, one of his first assignments was from the East Jersey Water Company to design a 30 million gallon per day mechanical filtration plant at Little Falls, New Jersey. On June 19,1908, Fuller was hired by John L. Leal to design and build a system for the Jersey City. Given an impossible deadline as a result of a New Jersey Chancery Court order, Fuller successfully completed the system in 99 days. John L. Leal developed the concept of applying chlorine in the form of a dilute solution of chloride of lime at fractions of a ppm. Fuller modeled his chloride of lime feed system on the aluminum sulfate feed system that he designed for the Little Falls Water Treatment Plant. The chlorination facility fed 0.2 to 0.35 ppm of chlorine to a water flow of 40 million gallons per day from Boonton Reservoir.
17. Indian Medical Service – The Indian Medical Service was a military medical service in British India, which also had some civilian functions. It served during the two World Wars, and remained in existence until the independence of India in 1947, many of its officers, who were both British and Indian, served in civilian hospitals. The Raj set up the Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine between 1910 and its opening in 1921 as a center for tropical medicine on the periphery of the Empire. The IMS was one of the routes to becoming a Political officer in the Indian Political Department, the earliest positions for medical officers in the British East India Company were as ship surgeons. The first three surgeons to have served were John Banester on the Leicester, Lewis Attmer on the Edward, the first Company fleet went out in 1600 with James Lancaster on the Red Dragon and three other ships each with two surgeons and a barber. This was the voyage on which the experiment on lemon juice as a cure for scurvy was carried out. With the establishment of trading posts, factories, around India, more surgeons and physicians found employment not only with Europeans but in the service of wealthy natives. These men of medicine included Nicholas Manucci, a Venetian born in 1639 who served Dara Shikoh before studying medicine in Lahore where he served Shah Alam from 1678-82. An Armenian named Sikandar Beg served as surgeon to Suleiman Shikoh, son of Darah Shikoh, Surgeons were often assigned on diplomatic missions to various courts and they were found to be very influential. The first surgeon at Calcutta was an unknown Dutchman who resigned in 1691. William Hamilton was particularly famous, John Zephaniah Holwell who came to Bengal as a Surgeon in 1732 was appointed as Zamindar of Calcutta. He was captured in 1756 by Siraj-ud-Daulah and survived the Black Hole, Holwell was noted as a careful student of native customs and it has been suggested that if he had been in charge of Fort William, the entire incident would not have happened. He returned to England became an advisor on matters of government. Surgeons were also often spared in wartime, William Fullerton was the sole survivor in 1763 at Patna when the English fought Nawab Mir Qasim. Samuel Browne served around 1694 at Fort St. George, Madras from where he reported on his botanical. Jean Martin served Haider Ali and a Jean Castarede served under Tipoo Sultan, John Martin Honigberger from Transylvania served Ranjit Singh around 1830 and later at a hospital set up by Sir Henry Lawrence at Lahore. Benjamin Simpson captured numerous photographs during his service in the half of the 19th century. A hierarchy was introduced into the establishment of the East India Company in 1614 with the appointment of a Surgeon General, Woodall was however accused of embezzling pay from apprentices that he would hire. With continuing complaints and a financial crunch Woodall was retrenched in 1642, another Surgeon Walter Chesley was sent home from service in Sumatra for drunkenness, while a Dr. Coote was removed from Bencoolen for debauchery in 1697.
18. Major (United States) – In the United States Army, Marine Corps, and Air Force, major is a field grade military officer rank above the rank of captain and below the rank of lieutenant colonel. It is equivalent to the rank of lieutenant commander in the other uniformed services. Although lieutenant commanders are considered junior officers by their respective services, the pay grade for the rank of major is O-4. The insignia for the rank consists of an oak leaf. Promotion to major is governed by Department of Defense policies derived from the Defense Officer Personnel Management Act of 1980, a major in the U. S. Army typically serves as a battalion executive officer or as the battalion operations officer. A major can also serve as a staff officer for a regiment, brigade or task force in the areas concerning personnel, logistics. A major will also be a staff officer / action officer on higher staffs, in addition, majors command augmented companies in Combat Service and Service Support units. U. S. Army majors also command Special operations companies, during the American Civil War the Union Army continued to use the existing titles of rank and rank insignia established for the US Army. The number of rows of lace increased with the rank of the officer. A major in the Air Force typically has duties as a staff officer at the squadron. In flying squadrons majors are generally flight commanders or assistant directors of operations, in the mission support and maintenance groups majors may occasionally be squadron commanders. In the medical corps, a major may be the head of a clinic or flight, many police agencies in the United States use the rank of major for officers in senior administrative and supervisory positions. The position is most often found in larger agencies, where the number of sworn personnel requires an expanded and complex rank structure. The term major is not always used in scenarios, and some police departments prefer to use titles such as Deputy Chief, Commander, or similar. However, there are agencies, particularly state police, which prefer to use both the insignia and title. The rank may also be used in conjunction with, rather than instead of, confederate Army rank insignia, A guide Officer rank insignia Rank history.
19. Carl Rogers Darnall – Brigadier General Carl Rogers Darnall was a United States Army chemist and surgeon credited with originating the technique of liquid chlorination of drinking water. Chlorination has been an important innovation in public health, saving innumerable lives. Darnall was born on his father’s farm in the Cottage Hill community near McKinney, in Collin County and he was the eldest of the seven children of Reverend Joseph Rogers Darnall, minister of the Christian Church, and Mary Ellen Darnall. He studied at Carlton College, Bonham, Texas, and Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky and received a MD degree from Jefferson Medical College, in 1892 he married Annie Estella Major of Erwinna, Pennsylvania. In 1896, after a few years of practice, he was commissioned a first lieutenant and assistant surgeon in the U. S. Army. He graduated from the Army Medical School in Washington the following year, Darnall’s first assignments were to stations in Texas – Fort Clark at Brackettville, and Fort McIntosh at Laredo. During the Spanish–American War, Darnall served in Cuba, later, he served as an operating surgeon and pathologist aboard the hospital ship USS Relief in the Philippines and commanded the hospital at Iloilo. He was one of the few officers that accompanied the Allied Forces during the Boxer Rebellion in China. In 1902, Darnall returned to Washington, D. C. and served as secretary of the faculty and instructor for sanitary chemistry and it was while a major and a professor of chemistry there that he demonstrated the value of anhydrous, liquefied chlorine in purifying water. His 1910 invention, the mechanical liquid chlorine purifier, was the prototype of the technology that is now applied to water supplies throughout the world. Darnall also devised and patented a water filter that was used by the Army for many years, Major William Lyster further adapted the process of water chlorination to field use by inventing a method to apply sodium hypochlorite in a cloth bag, known as a Lyster bag. Darnall was promoted to Colonel in 1917, during World War I, Darnall’s talents for business and organization were recognized and he was assigned to the Finance and Supply Division in the Office of The Surgeon General. After the war, he served as department surgeon in Hawaii, in 1925, he returned to the OTSG as executive officer. In November,1929, he was promoted to general and became the Commanding General of the Army Medical Center. Darnall died on 18 January 1941 at Walter Reed General Hospital, Washington, six days earlier, his wife had died at the family home in Washington. They left three sons, Joseph Rogers, William Major, and Carl Robert, all of whom served in capacity in the Army. He is buried in the Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington, Virginia, Darnall was a Fellow of the American College of Surgeons, a member of the American Medical Association and Association of Military Surgeons of the United States. He was a veteran of the Military Order of the Carabao, member of the Army and Navy Club of Washington, Darnall received the Distinguished Service Medal for his organizing, developing and administering medical supplies during World War I.
20. Army Medical School – Founded by U. S. Army Brigadier General George Miller Sternberg, MD in 1893, the Army Medical School was by some reckonings the worlds first school of public health and preventive medicine. The AMS ultimately became the Army Medical Center, then the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research, Sternberg created the AMS by issuing General Order 51 on June 24,1893. The School was housed, along with the Army Medical Library in the building of the Army Medical Museum and Library at 7th Street and South B Street, SW, Washington, D. C. In 1910, the AMS relocated to 721 13th Street, NW, the historic edifice known as Building #40 was constructed at 14th and Dahlia Streets beginning in 1922 and reached completion in 1932. This facility consists of four Pavilions, The North or Vedder Pavilion, The South or Craig Pavilion, The East or Sternberg Pavilion, The West or Siler Pavilion. In 1947, the MDPSS became the Army Medical Department Research and Graduate School, in September 1951, General Order Number 8 combined the WRGH & AMC into the present-day Walter Reed Army Medical Center. Three years later, the elements of this facility became the present-day Walter Reed Army Institute of Research. The Evolution of Public Health Education in the U. S. Army, 1893-1966, Army Medical Department Journal, PB 8-06-2, April-June 2006, pp 7-17.
21. Army Medical Department (United States) – It was established as the Army Hospital in July 1775 to coordinate the medical care required by the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War. The AMEDD is led by the Surgeon General of the U. S. Army, the AMEDD is the U. S. Armys healthcare organization, not a U. S. Army command. It is found in all three branches of the Army, the Active Army, the U. S. Army Reserve, and its headquarters is at Fort Sam Houston, San Antonio, Texas, which hosts the AMEDD Center and School. Large numbers of AMEDD senior leaders can also be found in the Washington D. C. area, the Academy of Health Sciences, within the AMEDDC&S, provides training to the officers and enlisted service members of the AMEDD. The current Surgeon General of the U. S. Army is LTG Nadja West and she is also commander of the U. S. Army Medical Command. Congress provided an Army medical organization only in times of war or emergency until 1818, the Army Organization Act of 1950 renamed the Medical Department the Army Medical Service and on June 4,1968 the AMS was renamed the Army Medical Department. A regimental coat of arms was devised for the Medical Department, the 20 white stars on a blue background and the red and white stripes represent the U. S. flag of 1818. The colors Argent and Gules are those associated with the flag of the United States, the rooster is associated with the ancient Greek and Roman god of healing and medicine, Aesculapius. The Ancient Greeks believed that the rooster’s crowing at dawn drove away the disease spreading demons from the temples so that it could be a place of healing. The torse below the rooster shows alternating blue and silver colors which were the colors of the Army in 1818, the Latin motto Experientia et Progressus, is meant to convey the steady and unfailing progress of the Army Medical Department since 1775. The design of the AMEDD regimental insignia is derived from the coat of arms. It is one of the US Army’s 14 regimental corps insignias and these insignias are worn over the right breast pocket on the Army Service Uniform and signify the service member’s branch of service. The new AMEDD insignia was approved on 27 October 2014, the caduceus in its present form was approved in 1902. Today, the AMEDD branch corps insignia is a gold color medal caduceus,1 inch in height, with the exception of the Medical Corps, each Corps is identified by a black enamel letter centered on the caduceus indicative of the specific branch. The insignia for Medical Service Corps is silver, there are currently six special officer branches in the AMEDD. The MC traces its origins to 27 July 1775, when the Continental Congress created “a Hospital”, essentially a Medical Department and corps of physicians, Medical officers in the United States Army were authorized uniforms only in 1816 and were accorded military rank only in 1847. Congress made the designation of Medical Corps official in 1908, although the term had long been in use informally among the AMEDDs regular physicians, today, members of the MC work around the world at all echelons of the Army. The Chief of the MC is a general, whereas the senior Army Medical Department officer is the Surgeon General.
22. Reverse osmosis – Reverse osmosis is a water purification technology that uses a semipermeable membrane to remove ions, molecules, and larger particles from drinking water. In reverse osmosis, a pressure is used to overcome osmotic pressure, a colligative property, that is driven by chemical potential differences of the solvent. Reverse osmosis can remove many types of dissolved and suspended species from water, including bacteria, the result is that the solute is retained on the pressurized side of the membrane and the pure solvent is allowed to pass to the other side. To be selective, this membrane should not allow large molecules or ions through the pores, in the normal osmosis process, the solvent naturally moves from an area of low solute concentration, through a membrane, to an area of high solute concentration. Applying an external pressure to reverse the flow of pure solvent. The process is similar to other membrane technology applications, however, key differences are found between reverse osmosis and filtration. Reverse osmosis also involves diffusion, making the process dependent on pressure, flow rate, reverse osmosis is most commonly known for its use in drinking water purification from seawater, removing the salt and other effluent materials from the water molecules. The process of osmosis through semipermeable membranes was first observed in 1748 by Jean-Antoine Nollet, for the following 200 years, osmosis was only a phenomenon observed in the laboratory. In 1950, the University of California at Los Angeles first investigated desalination of seawater using semipermeable membranes, cadottes patent on this process was the subject of litigation and has since expired. Almost all commercial reverse osmosis membrane is now made by this method, by the end of 2001, about 15,200 desalination plants were in operation or in the planning stages, worldwide. In 1977 Cape Coral, Florida became the first municipality in the United States to use the RO process on a scale with an initial operating capacity of 3 million gallons per day. By 1985, due to the growth in population of Cape Coral. In most cases, the membrane is designed to only water to pass through this dense layer. This process is best known for its use in desalination, but since the early 1970s, it has also used to purify fresh water for medical, industrial. Around the world, household drinking water systems, including a reverse osmosis step, are commonly used for improving water for drinking and cooking. CTA membrane is a paper by-product membrane bonded to a layer and are made to allow contact with chlorine in the water. These require an amount of chlorine in the water source to prevent bacteria from forming on it. The typical rejection rate for CTA membranes is 85–95%, the cellulose triacetate membrane is prone to rotting unless protected by chlorinated water, while the thin film composite membrane is prone to breaking down under the influence of chlorine.
23. Drinking water – Drinking water, also known as potable water or improved drinking water, is water that is safe to drink or to use for food preparation, without risk of health problems. Globally, in 2015, 91% of people had access to suitable for drinking. Nearly 4.2 billion had access to tap water while another 2.4 billion had access to wells or public taps,1.8 billion people still use an unsafe drinking water source which may be contaminated by feces. This can result in infectious diarrhea such as cholera and typhoid among others, the amount of drinking water required is variable. It depends on activity, age, health issues. It is estimated that the average American drinks about one litre of water a day with 95% drinking less than three litres per day, for those working in a hot climate, up to 16 liters a day may be required. Water makes up about 60% of weight in men and 55% of weight in women, infants are about 70% to 80% water while the elderly are around 45%. Typically in developed countries, tap water meets drinking water quality standards, other typical uses include washing, toilets, and irrigation. Greywater may also be used for toilets or irrigation and its use for irrigation however may be associated with risks. Water may also be due to levels of toxins or suspended solids. Reduction of waterborne diseases and development of water resources is a major public health goal in developing countries. Bottled water is sold for consumption in most parts of the world. The word potable came into English from the Late Latin potabilis, the amount of drinking water required is variable. It depends on activity, age, health, and environmental conditions. It is estimated that the average American drinks about one litre of water a day with 95% drinking less than three litres per day, for those working in a hot climate, up to 16 litres per day may be required. Some health authorities have suggested that at least eight glasses of eight fl oz each are required by an adult per day, the British Dietetic Association recommends 1.8 litres. However, various reviews of the evidence performed in 2002 and 2008 could not find any scientific evidence recommending eight glasses of water per day. An individuals thirst provides a guide for how much water they require rather than a specific.
24. Philadelphia – In 1682, William Penn, an English Quaker, founded the city to serve as capital of the Pennsylvania Colony. Philadelphia was one of the capitals in the Revolutionary War. In the 19th century, Philadelphia became an industrial center. It became a destination for African-Americans in the Great Migration. The areas many universities and colleges make Philadelphia a top international study destination, as the city has evolved into an educational, with a gross domestic product of $388 billion, Philadelphia ranks ninth among world cities and fourth in the nation. Philadelphia is the center of activity in Pennsylvania and is home to seven Fortune 1000 companies. The Philadelphia skyline is growing, with a market of almost 81,900 commercial properties in 2016 including several prominent skyscrapers. The city is known for its arts, culture, and rich history, Philadelphia has more outdoor sculptures and murals than any other American city. Fairmount Park, when combined with the adjacent Wissahickon Valley Park in the watershed, is one of the largest contiguous urban park areas in the United States. The 67 National Historic Landmarks in the city helped account for the $10 billion generated by tourism, Philadelphia is the only World Heritage City in the United States. Before Europeans arrived, the Philadelphia area was home to the Lenape Indians in the village of Shackamaxon, the Lenape are a Native American tribe and First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their territory was along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island. Most Lenape were pushed out of their Delaware homeland during the 18th century by expanding European colonies, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases, mainly smallpox, and violent conflict with Europeans. Iroquois people occasionally fought the Lenape, surviving Lenape moved west into the upper Ohio River basin. The American Revolutionary War and United States independence pushed them further west, in the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario. The Dutch considered the entire Delaware River valley to be part of their New Netherland colony, in 1638, Swedish settlers led by renegade Dutch established the colony of New Sweden at Fort Christina and quickly spread out in the valley. In 1644, New Sweden supported the Susquehannocks in their defeat of the English colony of Maryland.
25. Pennsylvania – Pennsylvania /ˌpɛnsᵻlˈveɪnjə/, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a state located in the northeastern and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States. The Appalachian Mountains run through its middle, Pennsylvania is the 33rd largest, the 5th most populous, and the 9th most densely populated of the 50 United States. The states five most populous cities are Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Allentown, Erie, the state capital, and its ninth-largest city, is Harrisburg. Pennsylvania has 140 miles of shoreline along Lake Erie and the Delaware Estuary. The state is one of the 13 original founding states of the United States, it came into being in 1681 as a result of a land grant to William Penn. Part of Pennsylvania, together with the present State of Delaware, had earlier been organized as the Colony of New Sweden and it was the second state to ratify the United States Constitution, on December 12,1787. Independence Hall, where the United States Declaration of Independence and United States Constitution were drafted, is located in the states largest city of Philadelphia, during the American Civil War, the Battle of Gettysburg, was fought in the south central region of the state. Valley Forge near Philadelphia was General Washingtons headquarters during the winter of 1777–78. Pennsylvania is 170 miles north to south and 283 miles east to west, of a total 46,055 square miles,44,817 square miles are land,490 square miles are inland waters, and 749 square miles are waters in Lake Erie. It is the 33rd largest state in the United States, Pennsylvania has 51 miles of coastline along Lake Erie and 57 miles of shoreline along the Delaware Estuary. Cities include Philadelphia, Reading, Lebanon and Lancaster in the southeast, Pittsburgh in the southwest, the tri-cities of Allentown, Bethlehem, the northeast includes the former anthracite coal mining communities of Scranton, Wilkes-Barre, Pittston City, and Hazleton. Erie is located in the northwest, the state has 5 regions, namely the Allegheny Plateau, Ridge and Valley, Atlantic Coastal Plain, Piedmont, and the Erie Plain. Straddling two major zones, the majority of the state, with the exception of the corner, has a humid continental climate. The largest city, Philadelphia, has characteristics of the humid subtropical climate that covers much of Delaware. Moving toward the interior of the state, the winter climate becomes colder, the number of cloudy days increase. Western areas of the state, particularly locations near Lake Erie, can receive over 100 inches of snowfall annually, the state may be subject to severe weather from spring through summer into fall. Tornadoes occur annually in the state, sometimes in large numbers, the Tuscarora Nation took up temporary residence in the central portion of Pennsylvania ca. Both the Dutch and the English claimed both sides of the Delaware River as part of their lands in America.
26. Sodium hypochlorite – Sodium hypochlorite is a chemical compound with the formula NaClO. It is composed of a cation and a hypochlorite anion. When dissolved in water it is known as bleach or liquid bleach. Sodium hypochlorite is practically and chemically distinct from chlorine, Sodium hypochlorite is frequently used as a disinfectant or a bleaching agent. Among other applications, it can be used to remove stains, dental stains caused by fluorosis. It has also used in laundry detergents. Sodium hypochlorite in solution exhibits broad spectrum anti-microbial activity and is used in healthcare facilities in a variety of settings. It is usually diluted in water depending on its intended use, a weak solution of 2% household bleach in warm water is used to sanitize smooth surfaces prior to brewing of beer or wine. Surfaces must be rinsed to avoid imparting flavors to the brew, the mode of disinfectant action of sodium hypochlorite is similar to that of hypochlorous acid. If higher concentrations are used, the surface must be rinsed with water after sanitizing. Strong chlorine solution made with household bleach is used for disinfecting areas contaminated with body fluids and this 1,10 dilution of 5. 25%–6. 15% sodium hypochlorite with water yields between 5250–6150 ppm available chlorine and is able to inactivate both C Diff and HPV. Liquids containing sodium hypochlorite as the active component are also used for household cleaning and disinfection. Some cleaners are formulated to be thick so as not to drain quickly from vertical surfaces, neutrophils of the human immune system produce small amounts of hypochlorite inside phagosomes, which digest bacteria and viruses. Sodium hypochlorite has deodorizing properties, which go hand in hand with its cleaning properties, Sodium hypochlorite solutions have been used to treat dilute cyanide waste water, such as electroplating wastes. In batch treatment operations, sodium hypochlorite has been used to more concentrated cyanide wastes. In solutions typically of 10–15% by weight, Sodium hypochlorite is the medicament of choice due to its efficacy against pathogenic organisms and pulp digestion in endodontic therapy. Its concentration for use varies from 0. 5% to 5. 25%, at low concentrations it dissolves mainly necrotic tissue, at higher concentrations it also dissolves vital tissue and additional bacterial species. 2% is a concentration as there is less risk of an iatrogenic hypochorite incident.
27. Halogen – The halogens or halogen elements are a group in the periodic table consisting of five chemically related elements, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, and astatine. The artificially created element 117 may also be a halogen, in the modern IUPAC nomenclature, this group is known as group 17. The symbol X is often used generically to refer to any halogen, when halogens react with metals they produce a wide range of salts, including calcium fluoride, sodium chloride, silver bromide and potassium iodide. The group of halogens is the periodic table group that contains elements in three of the four main states of matter at standard temperature and pressure. All of the halogens form acids when bonded to hydrogen, most halogens are typically produced from minerals or salts. The middle halogens, that is chlorine, bromine and iodine, are used as disinfectants. Organobromides are the most important class of flame retardants, elemental halogens are dangerously to potentially lethally toxic. The fluorine mineral fluorospar was known as early as 1529, early chemists realized that fluorine compounds contain an undiscovered element, but were unable to isolate it. In 1869, George Gore, an English chemist, ran a current of electricity through hydrofluoric acid and discovered fluorine, in 1886, Henri Moissan, a chemist in Paris, performed electrolysis on potassium bifluoride dissolved in waterless hydrofluoric acid, and successfully produced fluorine. Hydrochloric acid was known to alchemists and early chemists, However, elemental chlorine was not produced until 1774, when Carl Wilhelm Scheele heated hydrochloric acid with manganese dioxide. Scheele called the element dephlogisticated muriatic acid, which is how chlorine was known for 33 years, in 1807, Humphry Davy investigated chlorine and discovered that it is an actual element. Chlorine was used as a poison gas during World War I, bromine was discovered in the 1820s by Antoine-Jérôme Balard. Balard discovered bromine by passing gas through a sample of brine. He originally proposed the name muride for the new element, iodine was discovered by Bernard Courtois, who was using seaweed ash as part of a process for saltpeter manufacture. Courtois typically boiled the seaweed ash with water to generate potassium chloride, However, in 1811, Courtois added sulfuric acid to his process, and found that his process produced purple fumes that condensed into black crystals. Suspecting that these crystals were a new element, Courtois sent samples to other chemists for investigation, iodine was proven to be a new element by Joseph Gay-Lussac. In 1931, Fred Allison claimed to have discovered element 85 with a machine, and named the element Alabamine. In 1937, Jajendralal De claimed to have discovered element 85 in minerals, and called the element dakine, element 85, now named astatine, was produced successfully in 1940 by Dale R. Corson, K. R.
28. Bacteria – Bacteria constitute a large domain of prokaryotic microorganisms. Typically a few micrometres in length, bacteria have a number of shapes, ranging from spheres to rods, Bacteria were among the first life forms to appear on Earth, and are present in most of its habitats. Bacteria inhabit soil, water, acidic hot springs, radioactive waste, Bacteria also live in symbiotic and parasitic relationships with plants and animals. Most bacteria have not been characterised, and only half of the bacterial phyla have species that can be grown in the laboratory. The study of bacteria is known as bacteriology, a branch of microbiology, There are typically 40 million bacterial cells in a gram of soil and a million bacterial cells in a millilitre of fresh water. There are approximately 5×1030 bacteria on Earth, forming a biomass which exceeds that of all plants, Bacteria are vital in many stages of the nutrient cycle by recycling nutrients such as the fixation of nitrogen from the atmosphere. The nutrient cycle includes the decomposition of bodies and bacteria are responsible for the putrefaction stage in this process. In March 2013, data reported by researchers in October 2012, was published and it was suggested that bacteria thrive in the Mariana Trench, which with a depth of up to 11 kilometres is the deepest known part of the oceans. Other researchers reported related studies that microbes thrive inside rocks up to 580 metres below the sea floor under 2.6 kilometres of ocean off the coast of the northwestern United States. According to one of the researchers, You can find microbes everywhere—theyre extremely adaptable to conditions, the vast majority of the bacteria in the body are rendered harmless by the protective effects of the immune system, though many are beneficial particularly in the gut flora. However several species of bacteria are pathogenic and cause diseases, including cholera, syphilis, anthrax, leprosy. The most common fatal diseases are respiratory infections, with tuberculosis alone killing about 2 million people per year. In developed countries, antibiotics are used to treat infections and are also used in farming, making antibiotic resistance a growing problem. Once regarded as constituting the class Schizomycetes, bacteria are now classified as prokaryotes. Unlike cells of animals and other eukaryotes, bacterial cells do not contain a nucleus and these evolutionary domains are called Bacteria and Archaea. The ancestors of modern bacteria were unicellular microorganisms that were the first forms of life to appear on Earth, for about 3 billion years, most organisms were microscopic, and bacteria and archaea were the dominant forms of life. In 2008, fossils of macroorganisms were discovered and named as the Francevillian biota, however, gene sequences can be used to reconstruct the bacterial phylogeny, and these studies indicate that bacteria diverged first from the archaeal/eukaryotic lineage. Bacteria were also involved in the second great evolutionary divergence, that of the archaea, here, eukaryotes resulted from the entering of ancient bacteria into endosymbiotic associations with the ancestors of eukaryotic cells, which were themselves possibly related to the Archaea.
29. Protozoans – In 21st-century systems of biological classification, the Protozoa are defined as a diverse group of unicellular eukaryotic organisms. Historically, protozoa were defined as single-celled animals or organisms with animal-like behaviors, such as motility, the group was regarded as the zoological counterpart to the protophyta, which were considered to be plant-like, as they are capable of photosynthesis. The terms protozoa and protozoans are now mostly used informally to designate single-celled, non-photosynthetic protists, such as the ciliates, amoebae and flagellates. The term Protozoa was introduced in 1818 for a taxonomic class, in several classification systems proposed by Thomas Cavalier-Smith and his collaborators since 1981, Protozoa is ranked as a kingdom. The seven-kingdom scheme proposed by Ruggiero et al. in 2015, places eight phyla under Protozoa, Euglenozoa, Amoebozoa, Metamonada, Choanozoa, Loukozoa, Percolozoa, Microsporidia and Sulcozoa. This kingdom does not form a clade, but an evolutionary grade or paraphyletic group, from which the fungi, for this reason, the terms protists, Protista or Protoctista are sometimes preferred for the high-level classification of eukaryotic microbes. In 2005, members of the Society of Protozoologists voted to change the name of organization to the International Society of Protistologists. The word protozoa was coined in 1818 by zoologist Georg August Goldfuss, as the Greek equivalent of the German Urthiere, meaning primitive, Goldfuss erected Protozoa as a class containing what he believed to be the simplest animals. Originally, the group included not only microbes, but also some lower animals, such as rotifers, corals, sponges, jellyfish, bryozoa. In 1848, in light of advancements in cell theory pioneered by Theodore Schwann and Matthias Schleiden, von Siebold redefined Protozoa to include only such unicellular forms, to the exclusion of all metazoa. At the same time, he raised the group to the level of a phylum containing two broad classes of microbes, Infusoria, and Rhizopoda. As a phylum under Animalia, the Protozoa were firmly rooted in the old two-kingdom classification of life, criticism of this system began in the latter half of the 19th century, with the realization that many organisms met the criteria for inclusion among both plants and animals. For example, the algae Euglena and Dinobryon have chloroplasts for photosynthesis, as an alternative, he proposed a new kingdom called Primigenum, consisting of both the protozoa and unicellular algae, which he combined together under the name Protoctista. In Hoggss conception, the animal and plant kingdoms were likened to two great pyramids blending at their bases in the Kingdom Primigenum, six years later, Ernst Haeckel also proposed a third kingdom of life, which he named Protista. Despite these proposals, Protozoa emerged as the taxonomic placement for heterotrophic microbes such as amoebae and ciliates. A variety of systems were proposed, and Kingdoms Protista and Protoctista became well established in biology texts. While many taxonomists have abandoned Protozoa as a group, Thomas Cavalier-Smith has retained it as a kingdom in the various classifications he has proposed. As of 2015, Cavalier-Smiths Protozoa excludes several major groups of organisms traditionally placed among the protozoa, including the ciliates, dinoflagellates, Protozoa, as traditionally defined, are mainly microscopic organisms, ranging in size from 10 to 52 micrometers.
30. Chlorine production – This article presents the industrial and laboratory methodologies to prepare elemental chlorine. Chlorine can be manufactured by electrolysis of a chloride solution. The production of chlorine results in the caustic soda and hydrogen gas. These two products, as well as itself, are highly reactive. Chlorine can also be produced by the electrolysis of a solution of chloride, in which case the co-products are hydrogen. The rocking cells used have been improved over the years, today, in the primary cell, titanium anodes are placed in a sodium chloride solution flowing over a liquid mercury cathode. When a potential difference is applied and current flows, chlorine is released at the titanium anode and this flows continuously into a separate reactor, where it is usually converted back to mercury by reaction with water, producing hydrogen and sodium hydroxide at a commercially useful concentration. The mercury is recycled to the primary cell by a pump situated at the bottom. The mercury process is the least energy-efficient of the three main technologies and there are concerns about mercury emissions. It is estimated there are still around 100 mercury-cell plants operating worldwide. In Japan, mercury-based chloralkali production was phased out by 1987. In the United States, there will be only five plants remaining in operation by the end of 2008. In Europe, mercury cells accounted for 43% of capacity in 2006 and this technology was also developed at the end of the nineteenth century. There are several variants of this process, the Le Sueur cell, the Hargreaves-Bird cell, the Gibbs cell, the cells vary in construction and placement of the diaphragm, with some having the diaphragm in direct contact with the cathode. The salt solution is fed to the anode compartment and flows through the diaphragm to the cathode compartment, where the caustic alkali is produced. As a result, diaphragm methods produce alkali that is quite dilute, development of this technology began in the 1970s. The electrolysis cell is divided two sections by a cation permeable membrane acting as an ion exchanger. Saturated sodium chloride solution is passed through the compartment, leaving at a lower concentration.
31. Oxidizing agent – In chemistry, an oxidizing agent is a substance that has the ability to oxidize other substances. Common oxidizing agents are oxygen, hydrogen peroxide and halogens, in one sense, an oxidizing agent is a chemical species that undergoes a chemical reaction that removes one or more electrons from another atom. In that sense, it is one component in an oxidation–reduction reaction, in the second sense, an oxidizing agent is a chemical species that transfers electronegative atoms, usually oxygen, to a substrate. Combustion, many explosives, and organic redox reactions involve atom-transfer reactions, electron acceptors participate in electron-transfer reactions. In this context, the agent is called an electron acceptor. A classic oxidizing agent is the ferrocenium ion Fe+2, which accepts an electron to form Fe2, one of the strongest acceptors commercially available is Magic blue, the radical cation derived from N3. Extensive tabulations of ranking the electron accepting properties of various reagents are available, in more common usage, an oxidising agent transfers oxygen atoms to a substrate. In this context, the agent can be called an oxygenation reagent or oxygen-atom transfer agent. Examples include MnO−4, CrO2−4, OsO4, and especially ClO−4, notice that these species are all oxides. In some cases, these oxides can also serve as electron acceptors, as illustrated by the conversion of MnO−4 to MnO2−4, by this definition some materials that are classified as oxidising agents by analytical chemists are not classified as oxidising agents in a dangerous materials sense. An example is potassium dichromate, which does not pass the dangerous goods test of an oxidising agent, the U. S. Department of Transportation defines oxidizing agents specifically. There are two definitions for oxidizing agents governed under DOT regulations and these two are Class 5, Division 5.1 and Class 5, Division 5.2. Division 5.1 means a material that may, generally by yielding oxygen, combustion Dye Electrosynthesis Organic oxidation Organic redox reaction Reducing agent.
32. Hypochlorous acid – Hypochlorous acid is a weak acid that forms when chlorine dissolves in water, and itself partially dissociates, forming ClO-. HClO and ClO - are oxidizers, and the primary agents of chlorine solutions. HClO cannot be isolated from these due to rapid equilibration with its precursor. Sodium hypochlorite and calcium hypochlorite, are bleaches, deodorants, in organic synthesis, HClO converts alkenes to chlorohydrins. In biology, hypochlorous acid is generated in activated neutrophils by myeloperoxidase-mediated peroxidation of chloride ions, in the cosmetics industry it is used as a skin cleansing agent, which benefits the bodys skin rather than causing drying. It is also used in products, because baby skin is particularly sensitive. In water treatment, hypochlorous acid is the active sanitizer in hypochlorite-based products, thus, the formation of stable hypochlorite bleaches is facilitated by dissolving chlorine gas into basic water solutions, such as sodium hydroxide. One of the best-known hypochlorites is NaClO, the ingredient in bleach. HClO is a stronger oxidant than chlorine under standard conditions. 2 HClO +2 H+ +2 e− ⇌ Cl2 +2 H2O E = +1.63 V HClO reacts with HCl to form gas, HClO + HCl → H2O + Cl2 HClO reacts with amines to form chloramines. Reacting with ammonia, NH3 + HClO → NH2Cl + H2O HClO can also react with organic amines, hypochlorous acid reacts with a wide variety of biomolecules, including DNA, RNA, fatty acid groups, cholesterol and proteins. First noted that HClO is an inhibitor that, in sufficient quantity. This is because HClO oxidises sulfhydryl groups, leading to the formation of bonds that can result in crosslinking of proteins. One sulfhydryl-containing amino acid can scavenge up to four molecules of HOCl, the first reaction yields sulfenic acid then sulfinic acid and finally R–SO3H. Sulfenic acids form disulfides with another protein group, causing cross-linking. Sulfinic acid and R–SO3H derivatives are produced only at high molar excesses of HClO, disulfide bonds can also be oxidized by HClO to sulfinic acid. Because the oxidation of sulfhydryls and disulfides evolves hydrochloric acid, this results in the depletion HClO. Hypochlorous acid reacts readily with acids that have amino group side-chains, with the chlorine from HClO displacing a hydrogen.
33. Enzymes – Enzymes /ˈɛnzaɪmz/ are macromolecular biological catalysts. Enzymes accelerate, or catalyze, chemical reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process upon which enzymes may act are called substrates and the enzyme converts these into different molecules, called products. Almost all metabolic processes in the cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates fast enough to sustain life, the set of enzymes made in a cell determines which metabolic pathways occur in that cell. The study of enzymes is called enzymology, enzymes are known to catalyze more than 5,000 biochemical reaction types. Most enzymes are proteins, although a few are catalytic RNA molecules, enzymes specificity comes from their unique three-dimensional structures. Like all catalysts, enzymes increase the rate of a reaction by lowering its activation energy, some enzymes can make their conversion of substrate to product occur many millions of times faster. An extreme example is orotidine 5-phosphate decarboxylase, which allows a reaction that would take millions of years to occur in milliseconds. Chemically, enzymes are like any catalyst and are not consumed in chemical reactions, enzymes differ from most other catalysts by being much more specific. Enzyme activity can be affected by other molecules, inhibitors are molecules that decrease enzyme activity, many drugs and poisons are enzyme inhibitors. An enzymes activity decreases markedly outside its optimal temperature and pH, some enzymes are used commercially, for example, in the synthesis of antibiotics. French chemist Anselme Payen was the first to discover an enzyme, diastase and he wrote that alcoholic fermentation is an act correlated with the life and organization of the yeast cells, not with the death or putrefaction of the cells. In 1877, German physiologist Wilhelm Kühne first used the term enzyme, the word enzyme was used later to refer to nonliving substances such as pepsin, and the word ferment was used to refer to chemical activity produced by living organisms. Eduard Buchner submitted his first paper on the study of yeast extracts in 1897, in a series of experiments at the University of Berlin, he found that sugar was fermented by yeast extracts even when there were no living yeast cells in the mixture. He named the enzyme that brought about the fermentation of sucrose zymase, in 1907, he received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his discovery of cell-free fermentation. Following Buchners example, enzymes are usually named according to the reaction they carry out, the biochemical identity of enzymes was still unknown in the early 1900s. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was a protein and crystallized it. These three scientists were awarded the 1946 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, the discovery that enzymes could be crystallized eventually allowed their structures to be solved by x-ray crystallography. This high-resolution structure of lysozyme marked the beginning of the field of structural biology, an enzymes name is often derived from its substrate or the chemical reaction it catalyzes, with the word ending in - ase.
34. Proteins – Proteins are large biomolecules, or macromolecules, consisting of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, a linear chain of amino acid residues is called a polypeptide. A protein contains at least one long polypeptide, short polypeptides, containing less than 20–30 residues, are rarely considered to be proteins and are commonly called peptides, or sometimes oligopeptides. The individual amino acid residues are bonded together by peptide bonds, the sequence of amino acid residues in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the code specifies 20 standard amino acids, however. Sometimes proteins have non-peptide groups attached, which can be called prosthetic groups or cofactors, proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable protein complexes. Once formed, proteins only exist for a period of time and are then degraded and recycled by the cells machinery through the process of protein turnover. A proteins lifespan is measured in terms of its half-life and covers a wide range and they can exist for minutes or years with an average lifespan of 1–2 days in mammalian cells. Abnormal and or misfolded proteins are degraded more rapidly due to being targeted for destruction or due to being unstable. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms, many proteins are enzymes that catalyse biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. In animals, proteins are needed in the diet to provide the essential amino acids that cannot be synthesized, digestion breaks the proteins down for use in the metabolism. Methods commonly used to study structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance. Most proteins consist of linear polymers built from series of up to 20 different L-α-amino acids, all proteinogenic amino acids possess common structural features, including an α-carbon to which an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a variable side chain are bonded. Only proline differs from this structure as it contains an unusual ring to the N-end amine group. The amino acids in a chain are linked by peptide bonds. Once linked in the chain, an individual amino acid is called a residue, and the linked series of carbon, nitrogen. The peptide bond has two forms that contribute some double-bond character and inhibit rotation around its axis, so that the alpha carbons are roughly coplanar.
35. Hydrochloric acid – Hydrochloric acid is a corrosive, strong mineral acid with many industrial uses. A colorless, highly pungent solution of chloride in water. Free hydrochloric acid was first formally described in the 16th century by Libavius, later, it was used by chemists such as Glauber, Priestley, and Davy in their scientific research. It has numerous applications, including household cleaning, production of gelatin and other food additives, descaling. About 20 million tonnes of acid are produced worldwide annually. It is also found naturally in gastric acid, Hydrochloric acid was known to European alchemists as spirits of salt or acidum salis. Both names are used, especially in other languages, such as German, Salzsäure, Dutch, Zoutzuur, Swedish, Saltsyra, Turkish, Tuz Ruhu, Polish, kwas solny and Chinese. Gaseous HCl was called marine acid air, the old name muriatic acid has the same origin, and this name is still sometimes used. The name hydrochloric acid was coined by the French chemist Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac in 1814, aqua regia, a mixture consisting of hydrochloric and nitric acids, prepared by dissolving sal ammoniac in nitric acid, was described in the works of Pseudo-Geber, a 13th-century European alchemist. Other references suggest that the first mention of aqua regia is in Byzantine manuscripts dating to the end of the 13th century, free hydrochloric acid was first formally described in the 16th century by Libavius, who prepared it by heating salt in clay crucibles. Joseph Priestley of Leeds, England prepared pure hydrogen chloride in 1772, during the Industrial Revolution in Europe, demand for alkaline substances increased. A new industrial process developed by Nicolas Leblanc of Issoundun, France enabled cheap large-scale production of sodium carbonate, in this Leblanc process, common salt is converted to soda ash, using sulfuric acid, limestone, and coal, releasing hydrogen chloride as a by-product. Until the British Alkali Act 1863 and similar legislation in other countries, after the passage of the act, soda ash producers were obliged to absorb the waste gas in water, producing hydrochloric acid on an industrial scale. In the 20th century, the Leblanc process was replaced by the Solvay process without a hydrochloric acid by-product. Since hydrochloric acid was already settled as an important chemical in numerous applications. After the year 2000, hydrochloric acid is made by absorbing by-product hydrogen chloride from industrial organic compounds production. Hydrochloric acid is the salt of hydronium ion, H3O+ and chloride and it is usually prepared by treating HCl with water. H C l + H2 O ⟶ H3 O + + C l − Hydrochloric acid can therefore be used to prepare salts called chlorides, Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid, since it is completely dissociated in water.
36. Water well – A water well is an excavation or structure created in the ground by digging, driving, boring, or drilling to access groundwater in underground aquifers. The well water is drawn by a pump, or using containers, such as buckets, placing a lining in the well shaft helps create stability and linings of wood or wickerwork date back at least as far as the Iron Age. Wells have been sunk by hand digging as is the case in rural developing areas. These wells are inexpensive and low-tech as they use mostly manual labour, a more modern method called caissoning uses pre-cast reinforced concrete well rings that are lowered into the hole. Deeper wells can be excavated by hand drilling methods or machine drilling, using a bit in a borehole, drilled wells are usually cased with a factory-made pipe composed of steel or plastic. Drilled wells can access water at greater depths than dug wells. A collector well can be constructed adjacent to a lake or stream with water percolating through the intervening material. The site of a well can be selected by a hydrogeologist, Water may be pumped or hand drawn. Impurities from the surface can easily reach shallow sources and contamination of the supply by pathogens or chemical contaminants needs to be avoided, Well water typically contains more minerals in solution than surface water and may require treatment before being potable. Soil salination can occur as the water falls and the surrounding soil begins to dry out. Another environmental problem is the potential for methane to seep into the water, hand-dug wells are excavations with diameters large enough to accommodate one or more people with shovels digging down to below the water table. The excavation is braced horizontally to avoid landslide or erosion endangering the people digging, a more modern method called caissoning uses reinforced concrete or plain concrete pre-cast well rings that are lowered into the hole. A well-digging team digs under a ring and the well column slowly sinks into the aquifer. Hand-dug wells are inexpensive and low tech as they use mostly manual labour to access groundwater in rural locations in developing countries and they may be built with a high degree of community participation, or by local entrepreneurs who specialize in hand-dug wells. They have been excavated to 60 metres. They have low operational and maintenance costs, in part because water can be extracted by hand bailing, without a pump. The water is coming from an aquifer or groundwater, and can be easily deepened. The yield of existing hand dug wells may be improved by deepening or introducing vertical tunnels or perforated pipes, drawbacks to hand-dug wells are numerous.
37. Spring (hydrology) – A spring is any natural situation where water flows from an aquifer to the Earths surface. It is a component of the hydrosphere, a spring may be the result of karst topography where surface water has infiltrated the Earths surface, becoming part of the area groundwater. The groundwater then travels through a network of cracks and fissure—openings ranging from intergranular spaces to large caves, the water eventually emerges from below the surface, in the form of a karst spring. The forcing of the spring to the surface can be the result of an aquifer in which the recharge area of the spring water table rests at a higher elevation than that of the outlet. Spring water forced to the surface by elevated sources are artesian wells and this is possible even if the outlet is in the form of a 300-foot-deep cave. In this case the cave is used like a hose by the higher elevated area of groundwater to exit through the lower elevation opening. Non-artesian springs may simply flow from a higher elevation through the earth to a lower elevation, still other springs are the result of pressure from an underground source in the earth, in the form of volcanic activity. The result can be water at elevated temperature such as a hot spring, the action of the groundwater continually dissolves permeable bedrock such as limestone and dolomite, creating vast cave systems. The term seep refers to springs with small flow rates in which the water has filtered through permeable earth. Fracture springs, discharge from faults, joints, or fissures in the earth, tubular springs, in which the water flows from underground caverns. Spring discharge, or resurgence, is determined by the springs recharge basin, factors that affect the recharge include the size of the area in which groundwater is captured, the amount of precipitation, the size of capture points, and the size of the spring outlet. Water may leak into the system from many sources including permeable earth, sinkholes. In some cases entire creeks seemingly disappear as the water sinks into the ground via the stream bed, grand Gulf State Park in Missouri is an example of an entire creek vanishing into the groundwater system. The water emerges 9 miles away, forming some of the discharge of Mammoth Spring in Arkansas, human activity may also affect a springs discharge--withdrawal of groundwater reduces the water pressure in an aquifer, decreasing the volume of flow. Springs are often classified by the volume of the water they discharge, the largest springs are called first-magnitude, defined as springs that discharge water at a rate of at least 2800 liters or 100 cubic feet of water per second. The scale for spring flow is as follows, Minerals become dissolved in the water as it moves through the underground rocks and this may give the water flavor and even carbon dioxide bubbles, depending on the nature of the geology through which it passes. This is why spring water is bottled and sold as mineral water. Springs that contain significant amounts of minerals are sometimes called mineral springs, Springs that contain large amounts of dissolved sodium salts, mostly sodium carbonate, are called soda springs.
38. Algae – Algae is an informal term for a large, diverse group of photosynthetic organisms which are not necessarily closely related, and is thus polyphyletic. Included organisms range from unicellular genera, such as Chlorella and the diatoms, to forms, such as the giant kelp. Most are aquatic and autotrophic and lack many of the cell and tissue types, such as stomata, xylem, and phloem. No definition of algae is generally accepted, one definition is that algae have chlorophyll as their primary photosynthetic pigment and lack a sterile covering of cells around their reproductive cells. Some authors exclude all prokaryotes thus do not consider cyanobacteria as algae, Algae constitute a polyphyletic group since they do not include a common ancestor, and although their plastids seem to have a single origin, from cyanobacteria, they were acquired in different ways. Green algae are examples of algae that have primary chloroplasts derived from endosymbiotic cyanobacteria, diatoms and brown algae are examples of algae with secondary chloroplasts derived from an endosymbiotic red alga. Algae exhibit a range of reproductive strategies, from simple asexual cell division to complex forms of sexual reproduction. Algae lack the various structures that characterize land plants, such as the phyllids of bryophytes, rhizoids in nonvascular plants, and the roots, leaves, and other organs found in tracheophytes. Most are phototrophic, although some are mixotrophic, deriving energy both from photosynthesis and uptake of organic carbon either by osmotrophy, myzotrophy, or phagotrophy. Some other heterotrophic organisms, such as the apicomplexans, are derived from cells whose ancestors possessed plastids. Fossilized filamentous algae from the Vindhya basin have been dated back to 1.6 to 1.7 billion years ago, the singular alga is the Latin word for seaweed and retains that meaning in English. Although some speculate that it is related to Latin algēre, be cold, a more likely source is alliga, binding, entwining. The Ancient Greek word for seaweed was φῦκος, which could mean either the seaweed or a red dye derived from it, the Latinization, fūcus, meant primarily the cosmetic rouge. It could be any color, black, red, green, accordingly, the modern study of marine and freshwater algae is called either phycology or algology, depending on whether the Greek or Latin root is used. The name Fucus appears in a number of taxa, most algae contain chloroplasts that are similar in structure to cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts contain circular DNA like that in cyanobacteria and presumably represent reduced endosymbiotic cyanobacteria, however, the exact origin of the chloroplasts is different among separate lineages of algae, reflecting their acquisition during different endosymbiotic events. The table below describes the composition of the three groups of algae. Their lineage relationships are shown in the figure in the upper right, many of these groups contain some members that are no longer photosynthetic.
39. Parts per million – In science and engineering, the parts-per notation is a set of pseudo-units to describe small values of miscellaneous dimensionless quantities, e. g. mole fraction or mass fraction. Since these fractions are quantity-per-quantity measures, they are pure numbers with no associated units of measurement, commonly used are ppm, ppb, ppt and ppq. Parts-per notation is often used describing dilute solutions in chemistry, for instance, the unit “1 ppm” can be used for a mass fraction if a water-borne pollutant is present at one-millionth of a gram per gram of sample solution. When working with aqueous solutions, it is common to assume that the density of water is 1.00 g/mL, therefore, it is common to equate 1 kilogram of water with 1 L of water. Consequently,1 ppm corresponds to 1 mg/L and 1 ppb corresponds to 1 μg/L, similarly, parts-per notation is used also in physics and engineering to express the value of various proportional phenomena. For instance, a metal alloy might expand 1.2 micrometers per meter of length for every degree Celsius. For instance, the accuracy of distance measurements when using a laser rangefinder might be 1 millimeter per kilometer of distance, this could be expressed as “Accuracy =1 ppm. ”Parts-per notations are all dimensionless quantities, in mathematical expressions. In fractions like “2 nanometers per meter” so the quotients are pure-number coefficients with positive values less than 1, when parts-per notations, including the percent symbol, are used in regular prose, they are still pure-number dimensionless quantities. However, they take the literal “parts per” meaning of a comparative ratio. Parts-per notations may be expressed in terms of any unit of the same measure, in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, chemical shift is usually expressed in ppm. It represents the difference of a frequency in parts per million from the reference frequency. The reference frequency depends on the magnetic field and the element being measured. It is usually expressed in MHz, typical chemical shifts are rarely more than a few hundred Hz from the reference frequency, so chemical shifts are conveniently expressed in ppm. Parts-per notation gives a quantity that does not depend on the instruments field strength. One part per hundred is generally represented by the percent symbol and denotes one part per 100 parts, one part in 102, and this is equivalent to approximately one drop of water diluted into 5 milliliters or about fifteen minutes out of one day. One part per thousand should generally be spelled out in full and it may also be denoted by the millage symbol. Note however, that specific disciplines such as oceanography, as well as educational exercises, one part per thousand denotes one part per 1000 parts, one part in 103, and a value of 1 × 10−3. This is equivalent to one drop of water diluted into 50 milliliters or about one, one part per ten thousand is denoted by the permyriad symbol.
40. Organic compound – An organic compound is virtually any chemical compound that contains carbon, although a consensus definition remains elusive and likely arbitrary. Organic compounds are rare terrestrially, but of importance because all known life is based on organic compounds. The most basic petrochemicals are considered the building blocks of organic chemistry, for historical reasons discussed below, a few types of carbon-containing compounds, such as carbides, carbonates, simple oxides of carbon, and cyanides are considered inorganic. The distinction between organic and inorganic compounds, while useful in organizing the vast subject of chemistry. Organic chemistry is the science concerned with all aspects of organic compounds, Organic synthesis is the methodology of their preparation. The word organic is historical, dating to the 1st century, for many centuries, Western alchemists believed in vitalism. This is the theory that certain compounds could be synthesized only from their classical elements—earth, water, air, vitalism taught that these organic compounds were fundamentally different from the inorganic compounds that could be obtained from the elements by chemical manipulation. Vitalism survived for a while even after the rise of modern atomic theory and it first came under question in 1824, when Friedrich Wöhler synthesized oxalic acid, a compound known to occur only in living organisms, from cyanogen. A more decisive experiment was Wöhlers 1828 synthesis of urea from the inorganic salts potassium cyanate, urea had long been considered an organic compound, as it was known to occur only in the urine of living organisms. Wöhlers experiments were followed by others, in which increasingly complex organic substances were produced from inorganic ones without the involvement of any living organism. Even though vitalism has been discredited, scientific nomenclature retains the distinction between organic and inorganic compounds, still, even the broadest definition requires excluding alloys that contain carbon, including steel. The C-H definition excludes compounds that are considered organic, neither urea nor oxalic acid is organic by this definition, yet they were two key compounds in the vitalism debate. The IUPAC Blue Book on organic nomenclature specifically mentions urea and oxalic acid, other compounds lacking C-H bonds but traditionally considered organic include benzenehexol, mesoxalic acid, and carbon tetrachloride. Mellitic acid, which contains no C-H bonds, is considered an organic substance in Martian soil. The C-H bond-only rule also leads to somewhat arbitrary divisions in sets of carbon-fluorine compounds, for example, CF4 would be considered by this rule to be inorganic, whereas CF3H would be organic. Organic compounds may be classified in a variety of ways, one major distinction is between natural and synthetic compounds. Another distinction, based on the size of organic compounds, distinguishes between small molecules and polymers, natural compounds refer to those that are produced by plants or animals. Many of these are extracted from natural sources because they would be more expensive to produce artificially.
Reclaimed water.
Reclaimed or recycled water (also called wastewater reuse or water reclamation ) is the process of converting wastewater into water that can be reused for other purposes. Reuse may include irrigation of gardens and agricultural fields or replenishing surface water and groundwater (i. e., groundwater recharge). Reused water may also be directed toward fulfilling certain needs in residences (e. g. toilet flushing), businesses, and industry, and could even be treated to reach drinking water standards. This last option is called either "direct potable reuse" or "indirect potable" reuse, depending on the approach used. Colloquially, the term "toilet to tap" also refers to potable reuse.
Reclaiming water for reuse applications instead of using freshwater supplies can be a water-saving measure. When used water is eventually discharged back into natural water sources, it can still have benefits to ecosystems, improving streamflow, nourishing plant life and recharging aquifers, as part of the natural water cycle. [1]
Wastewater reuse is a long-established practice used for irrigation, especially in arid countries. Reusing wastewater as part of sustainable water management allows water to remain as an alternative water source for human activities. This can reduce scarcity and alleviate pressures on groundwater and other natural water bodies. [2]
Background [ edit ]
Achieving more sustainable sanitation and wastewater management will require emphasis on actions linked to resource management, such as wastewater reuse or excreta reuse that will keep valuable resources available for productive uses. [2] This in turn supports human wellbeing and broader sustainability.
Simply stated, reclaimed water is water that is used more than one time before it passes back into the natural water cycle. Advances in wastewater treatment technology allow communities to reuse water for many different purposes. The water is treated differently depending upon the source and use of the water and how it gets delivered.
Cycled repeatedly through the planetary hydrosphere, all water on Earth is recycled water, but the terms "recycled water" or "reclaimed water" typically mean wastewater sent from a home or business through a sewer system to a wastewater treatment plant, where it is treated to a level consistent with its intended use.
The World Health Organization has recognized the following principal driving forces for wastewater reuse: [3] [4]
increasing water scarcity and stress, increasing populations and related food security issues, increasing environmental pollution from improper wastewater disposal, and increasing recognition of the resource value of wastewater, excreta and greywater.
Water is a limiting resource, and the pressure exerted on surface and groundwater resources should be reduced or at worst maintained, rather than increased, as the human population and industrial development increase. Water recycling and reuse is thus of increasing importance, not only in arid regions but also in cities and contaminated environments. [5]
Already, the groundwater aquifers that are used by over half of the world population are being over-drafted. [6] Reuse will continue to increase as the world’s population becomes increasingly urbanized and concentrated near coastlines, where local freshwater supplies are limited or are available only with large capital expenditure. [7] [8] Large quantities of freshwater can be saved by wastewater reuse and recycling, reducing environmental pollution and improving carbon footprint. [5] Reuse can be an alternative water supply option.
Types and applications [ edit ]
Most of the uses of water reclamation are non potable uses such as: washing cars, flushing toilets, cooling water for power plants, concrete mixing, artificial lakes, irrigation for golf courses and public parks, and for hydraulic fracturing. Where applicable, systems run a dual piping system to keep the recycled water separate from the potable water.
The main reclaimed water applications in the world are shown below: [9] [10] [11]
De facto wastewater reuse (unplanned potable reuse) [ edit ]
De facto, unacknowledged or unplanned potable reuse refers to a situation where reuse of treated wastewater is, in fact, practiced but is not officially recognized. [12] For example, a wastewater treatment plant from one city may be discharging effluents to a river which is used as a drinking water supply for another city downstream.
Unplanned Indirect Potable Use [13] has existed for a long time. Large towns on the River Thames upstream of London (Oxford, Reading, Swindon, Bracknell) discharge their treated sewage ("non-potable water") into the Thames, which supplies water to London downstream. In the United States, the Mississippi River serves as both the destination of sewage treatment plant effluent and the source of potable water.
Urban reuse [ edit ]
Unrestricted: The use of reclaimed water for non-potable applications in municipal settings, where public access is not restricted. Restricted: The use of reclaimed water for non-potable applications in municipal settings, where public access is controlled or restricted by physical or institutional barriers, such as fencing, advisory signage, or temporal access restriction. [14]
Agricultural reuse [ edit ]
There are benefits of using recycled water for irrigation, including the lower cost compared to some other sources and consistency of supply regardless of season, climatic conditions and associated water restrictions. When reclaimed water is used for irrigation in agriculture, the nutrient (nitrogen and phosphorus) content of the treated wastewater has the benefit of acting as a fertilizer. This can make the reuse of excreta contained in sewage attractive. [3]
The irrigation water can be used in different ways on different crops:
Food crops to be eaten raw: crops which are intended for human consumption to be eaten raw or unprocessed. Processed food crops: crops which are intended for human consumption not to be eaten raw but after treatment process (i. e. cooked, industrially processed). Non-food crops: crops which are not intended for human consumption (e. g. pastures, forage, fiber, ornamental, seed, forest and turf crops). [15]
In developing countries, agriculture is increasingly using untreated wastewater for irrigation - often in an unsafe manner. Cities provide lucrative markets for fresh produce, so are attractive to farmers. However, because agriculture has to compete for increasingly scarce water resources with industry and municipal users, there is often no alternative for farmers but to use water polluted with urban waste directly to water their crops.
There can be significant health hazards related to using untreated wastewater in agriculture. Wastewater from cities can contain a mixture of chemical and biological pollutants. In low-income countries, there are often high levels of pathogens from excreta. In emerging nations, where industrial development is outpacing environmental regulation, there are increasing risks from inorganic and organic chemicals. The World Health Organization, in collaboration with the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the United Nations Environmental Program (UNEP), has developed guidelines for safe use of wastewater in 2006. [3] These guidelines advocate a ‘multiple-barrier’ approach wastewater use, for example by encouraging farmers to adopt various risk-reducing behaviours. These include ceasing irrigation a few days before harvesting to allow pathogens to die off in the sunlight, applying water carefully so it does not contaminate leaves likely to be eaten raw, cleaning vegetables with disinfectant or allowing fecal sludge used in farming to dry before being used as a human manure. [16]
Environmental reuse [ edit ]
The use of reclaimed water to create, enhance, sustain, or augment water bodies including wetlands, aquatic habitats, or stream flow is called "environmental reuse". [14] For example, constructed wetlands fed by wastewater provide both wastewater treatment and habitats for flora and fauna.
Industrial reuse [ edit ]
The use of reclaimed water to recharge aquifers that are not used as a potable water source. [14]
Planned potable reuse [ edit ]
Planned potable reuse is publicly acknowledged as an intentional project to recycle water for drinking water. There are two ways in which potable water can be delivered for reuse - "Indirect Potable Reuse" (IPR) and "Direct Potable Reuse". Both these forms of reuse are described below, and commonly involve a more formal public process and public consultation program than is the case with de facto or unacknowledged reuse. In ‘indirect’ potable reuse applications, the reclaimed wastewater is used directly or mixed with other sources. [14] [17]
Direct potable reuse is also called "toilet to tap". [citação necessário]
Some water agencies reuse highly treated effluent from municipal wastewater or resource recovery plants as a reliable, drought proof source of drinking water. By using advanced purification processes, they produce water that meets all applicable drinking water standards. System reliability and frequent monitoring and testing are imperative to them meeting stringent controls.
The water needs of a community, water sources, public health regulations, costs, and the types of water infrastructure in place, such as distribution systems, man-made reservoirs, or natural groundwater basins, determine if and how reclaimed water can be part of the drinking water supply. Some communities reuse water to replenish groundwater basins. Others put it into surface water reservoirs. In these instances the reclaimed water is blended with other water supplies and/or sits in storage for a certain amount of time before it is drawn out and gets treated again at a water treatment or distribution system. In some communities, the reused water is put directly into pipelines that go to a water treatment plant or distribution system.
Modern technologies such as reverse osmosis and ultraviolet disinfection are commonly used when reclaimed water will be mixed with the drinking water supply.
Indirect potable reuse [ edit ]
Indirect potable reuse (IPR) means the water is delivered to you indirectly. After it is purified, the reused water blends with other supplies and/or sits a while in some sort of storage, man-made or natural, before it gets delivered to a pipeline that leads to a water treatment plant or distribution system. That storage could be a groundwater basin or a surface water reservoir.
Some municipalities are using and others are investigating Indirect Potable Reuse (IPR) of reclaimed water. For example, reclaimed water may be pumped into (subsurface recharge) or percolated down to (surface recharge) groundwater aquifers, pumped out, treated again, and finally used as drinking water. This technique may also be referred to as groundwater recharging . This includes slow processes of further multiple purification steps via the layers of earth/sand (absorption) and microflora in the soil (biodegradation).
IPR or even unplanned potable use of reclaimed wastewater is used in many countries, where the latter is discharged into groundwater to hold back saline intrusion in coastal aquifers. IPR has generally included some type of environmental buffer, but conditions in certain areas have created an urgent need for more direct alternatives. [18]
Direct potable reuse [ edit ]
Direct potable reuse means the reused water is put directly into pipelines that go to a water treatment plant or distribution system. Direct potable reuse may occur with or without “engineered storage” such as underground or above ground tanks. [14]
In a Direct Potable Reuse (DPR) scheme, water is put directly into pipelines that go to a water treatment plant or distribution system. Direct potable reuse may occur with or without “engineered storage” such as underground or above ground tanks. In other words, DPR is the introduction of reclaimed water derived from urban wastewater after extensive treatment and monitoring to assure that strict water quality requirements are met at all times, directly into a municipal water supply system.
Indirect Potable Reuse (IPR) [ edit ]
IPR occurs through the augmentation of drinking water supplies with urban wastewater treated to a level suitable for IPR followed by an environmental buffer (e. g. rivers, dams, aquifers, etc.) that precedes drinking water treatment. In this case, urban wastewater passes through a series of treatment steps that encompasses membrane filtration and separation processes (e. g. MF, UF and RO), followed by an advanced chemical oxidation process (e. g. UV, UV+H 2 O 2 , ozone). [14]
Reuse in space [ edit ]
Wastewater reclamation can be especially important in relation to human spaceflight. In 1998, NASA announced it had built a human waste reclamation bioreactor designed for use in the International Space Station and a manned Mars mission. Human urine and feces are input into one end of the reactor and pure oxygen, pure water, and compost (humanure) are output from the other end. The soil could be used for growing vegetables, and the bioreactor also produces electricity. [19] [20]
Aboard the International Space Station, astronauts have been able to drink recycled urine due to the introduction of the ECLSS system. The system costs $250 million and has been working since May 2009. The system recycles wastewater and urine back into potable water used for drinking, food preparation, and oxygen generation. This cuts back on the need for resupplying the space station so often. [21]
Benefits [ edit ]
Water/wastewater reuse, as an alternative water source, can provide significant economic, social and environmental benefits, which are key motivators for implementing such reuse programmes. Specifically, in agriculture, irrigation with wastewater may contribute to improve production yields, reduce the ecological footprint and promote socioeconomic benefits. [22] These benefits include: [23] [14]
Increased water availability Drinking water substitution - keep drinking water for drinking and reclaimed water for non-drinking use (i. e. industry, cleaning, irrigation, domestic uses, toilet flushing, etc.) Reduced over-abstraction of surface and groundwater Reduced energy consumption associated with production, treatment, and distribution of water compared to using deep groundwater resources, water importation or desalination Reduced nutrient loads to receiving waters (i. e. rivers, canals and other surface water resources) Reduced manufacturing costs of using high quality reclaimed water Increased agricultural production (i. e. crop yields) Reduced application of fertilizers (i. e. conservation of nutrients, reducing the need for artificial fertilizer (e. g. soil nutrition by the nutrients existing in the treated effluents)) Enhanced environmental protection by restoration of streams, wetlands and ponds Increased employment and local economy (e. g. tourism, agriculture).
Design considerations [ edit ]
Distribution [ edit ]
Nonpotable reclaimed water is often distributed with a dual piping network that keeps reclaimed water pipes completely separate from potable water pipes.
In many cities using reclaimed water, it is now in such demand that consumers are only allowed to use it on assigned days. Some cities that previously offered unlimited reclaimed water at a flat rate are now beginning to charge citizens by the amount they use. [citação necessário]
Treatment processes [ edit ]
For many types of reuse applications wastewater must pass through numerous sewage treatment process steps before it can be used. Steps might include screening, primary settling, biological treatment, tertiary treatment (for example reverse osmosis), and disinfection.
There are several technologies used to treat wastewater for reuse. A combination of these technologies can meet strict treatment standards and make sure that the processed water is hygienically safe, meaning free from bacteria and viruses. The following are some of the typical technologies: Ozonation, ultrafiltration, aerobic treatment (membrane bioreactor), forward osmosis, reverse osmosis, advanced oxidation.
Wastewater is generally treated to only secondary level treatment when used for irrigation.
A pump station distributes reclaimed water to users around the city. This may include golf courses, agricultural uses, cooling towers, or in land fills.
Alternative options [ edit ]
Rather than treating wastewater for reuse purposes, other options can achieve similar effects of freshwater savings:
Greywater reuse systems - at a household level, treated or untreated greywater may be used for flush toilets or to water the garden. Rainwater harvesting and stormwater recovery - Urban design systems which incorporate rainwater harvesting and reduce runoff are known as Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) in Australia, Low Impact Development (LID) in the United States and Sustainable urban drainage systems (SUDS) in the United Kingdom. Seawater desalination - an energy-intensive process where salt and other minerals are removed from seawater to produce potable water for drinking and irrigation, typically through membrane filtration (reverse-osmosis), and steam-distillation.
Costs [ edit ]
The cost of reclaimed water exceeds that of potable water in many regions of the world, where a fresh water supply is plentiful. However, reclaimed water is usually sold to citizens at a cheaper rate to encourage its use. As fresh water supplies become limited from distribution costs, increased population demands, or climate change reducing sources, the cost ratios will evolve also. The evaluation of reclaimed water needs to consider the entire water supply system, as it may bring important value of flexibility into the overall system [24]
Reclaimed water systems usually require a dual piping network, often with additional storage tanks, which adds to the costs of the system.
Barriers to implementation [ edit ]
Full-scale implementation and operation of water reuse schemes still face regulatory, economic, social and institutional challenges. [25] Economic viability of water reuse schemes. [25] Costs of water quality monitoring and identification of contaminants. [26] Full cost recovery from water reuse schemes - lack of financial water pricing systems comparable to already subsidized conventional treatment plants. [27]
Health aspects [ edit ]
Reclaimed water is considered safe when appropriately used. Reclaimed water planned for use in recharging aquifers or augmenting surface water receives adequate and reliable treatment before mixing with naturally occurring water and undergoing natural restoration processes. Some of this water eventually becomes part of drinking water supplies.
A water quality study published in 2009 compared the water quality differences of reclaimed/recycled water, surface water, and groundwater. [28] Results indicate that reclaimed water, surface water, and groundwater are more similar than dissimilar with regard to constituents. The researchers tested for 244 representative constituents typically found in water. When detected, most constituents were in the parts per billion and parts per trillion range. DEET (a bug repellant), and caffeine were found in all water types and virtually in all samples. Triclosan (in anti-bacterial soap & toothpaste) was found in all water types, but detected in higher levels (parts per trillion) in reclaimed water than in surface or groundwater. Very few hormones/steroids were detected in samples, and when detected were at very low levels. Haloacetic acids (a disinfection by-product) were found in all types of samples, even groundwater. The largest difference between reclaimed water and the other waters appears to be that reclaimed water has been disinfected and thus has disinfection by-products (due to chlorine use).
A 2005 study titled "Irrigation of Parks, Playgrounds, and Schoolyards with Reclaimed Water" found that there had been no incidences of illness or disease from either microbial pathogens or chemicals, and the risks of using reclaimed water for irrigation are not measurably different from irrigation using potable water. [29]
A 2012 study conducted by the National Research Council in the United States of America found that the risk of exposure to certain microbial and chemical contaminants from drinking reclaimed water does not appear to be any higher than the risk experienced in at least some current drinking water treatment systems, and may be orders of magnitude lower. [30] This report recommends adjustments to the federal regulatory framework that could enhance public health protection for both planned and unplanned (or de facto) reuse and increase public confidence in water reuse.
Many humans associate a feeling of disgust with reclaimed water and 13% of a survey group said they would not even sip it. [31] Nonetheless, the main health risk for potable use of reclaimed water is the potential for pharmaceutical and other household chemicals or their derivatives (Environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants) to persist in this water. [32] This would be less of a concern if human excreta was kept out of sewage by using dry toilets or systems that treat blackwater separately from greywater.
To address these concerns about the source water, reclaimed water providers use multi-barrier treatment processes and constant monitoring to ensure that reclaimed water is safe and treated properly for the intended end use.
Environmental aspects [ edit ]
There is debate about possible health and environmental effects. To address these concerns, A Risk Assessment Study of potential health risks of recycled water and comparisons to conventional Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Product (PPCP) exposures was conducted by the WateReuse Research Foundation. For each of four scenarios in which people come into contact with recycled water used for irrigation - children on the playground, golfers, and landscape, and agricultural workers - the findings from the study indicate that it could take anywhere from a few years to millions of years of exposure to nonpotable recycled water to reach the same exposure to PPCPs that we get in a single day through routine activities.
Using reclaimed water for non-potable uses saves potable water for drinking, since less potable water will be used for non-potable uses. [33]
It sometimes contains higher levels of nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and oxygen which may somewhat help fertilize garden and agricultural plants when used for irrigation.
The usage of water reclamation decreases the pollution sent to sensitive environments. It can also enhance wetlands, which benefits the wildlife depending on that eco-system. It also helps to stop the chances of drought as recycling of water reduces the use of fresh water supply from underground sources. For instance, The San Jose/Santa Clara Water Pollution Control Plant instituted a water recycling program to protect the San Francisco Bay area's natural salt water marshes. [33]
The main potential risks that are associated with reclaimed wastewater reuse for irrigation purposes, when the treatment is not adequate are the following: [34] [35]
contamination of the food chain with microcontaminants, pathogens (i. e. bacteria, viruses, protozoa, helminths), or antibiotic resistance determinants; soil salinization and accumulation of various unknown constituents that might adversely affect agricultural production; distribution of the indigenous soil microbial communities; alteration of the physicochemical and microbiological properties of the soil and contribution to the accumulation of chemical/biological contaminants (e. g. heavy metals, chemicals (i. e. boron, nitrogen, phosphorus, chloride, sodium, pesticides/herbicides), natural chemicals (i. e. hormones), contaminants of emerging concern (CECs) (i. e. pharmaceuticals and their metabolites, personal care products, household chemicals and food additives and their transformation products), etc.) in it and subsequent uptake by plants and crops; excessive growth of algae and vegetation in canals carrying wastewater (i. e. eutrophication); groundwater quality degradation by the various reclaimed water contaminants, migrating and accumulating in the soil and aquifers.
History [ edit ]
Wastewater reuse (planned or unplanned) is an ancient practice, which has been applied since the dawn of human history, and is closely connected to the development of sanitation provision. [36]
In the U. S., the Clean Water Act of 1972 mandated elimination of the discharge of untreated waste from municipal and industrial sources to make water safe for fishing and recreation. The US federal government provided billions of dollars in grants for building sewage treatment plants around the country. Modern treatment plants, usually using oxidation and/or chlorination in addition to primary and secondary treatment, were required to meet certain standards. [37]
Los Angeles County's sanitation districts started providing treated wastewater for landscape irrigation in parks and golf courses in 1929. The first reclaimed water facility in California was built at San Francisco's Golden Gate Park in 1932. The Water Replenishment District of Southern California was the first groundwater agency to obtain permitted use of recycled water for groundwater recharge in 1962.
Orange County is located in Southern California, USA, and houses a classic example in indirect potable reuse. [38] A large-scale artificial groundwater recharge scheme exists in the area, providing a much-needed freshwater barrier to intruding seawater. [39] Part of the injected water consists of recycled water, starting as of 1976 with Water Factory 21, which used RO and high lime to clean the water (production capacity of 19,000 m 3 per day). [40] This plant was decommissioned in 2004 and has since made place for a new project with a higher capacity (265,000 m 3 per day with an ultimate capacity of 492,000 m 3 per day), under the name of Groundwater Replenishment System. [41]
Guidelines and regulations [ edit ]
International organisations [ edit ]
World Health Organization (WHO): “Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater, excreta and greywater” (2006). [3] United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP): “Guidelines for municipal wastewater reuse in the Mediterranean region” (2005). United Nations Water Decade Programme on Capacity Development (UNW-DPC): Proceedings on the UNWater project “Safe use of wastewater in agriculture” (2013).
European Union [ edit ]
The health and environmental safety conditions under which wastewater may be reused are not specifically regulated at the European Union (EU) level. There are no guidelines or regulations at EU level on water quality for water reuse purposes. In the Water Framework Directive, reuse of water is mentioned as one of the possible measures to achieve the Directive’s quality goals, however this remains a relatively vague recommendation rather than a requirement: Part B of Annex VI refers to reuse as one of the “supplementary measures which Member States within each river basin district may choose to adopt as part of the programme of measures required under Article 11(4)”. [42]
Besides that, Article 12 of the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive concerning the reuse of treated wastewater states that “treated wastewater shall be reused whenever appropriate”, is not specific enough to promote water reuse and it leaves too much room for interpretation as to what can be considered as an “appropriate” situation to reuse treated wastewater.
Despite the lack of common water reuse criteria at the EU level, several Member States (MS) have issued their own legislative frameworks, regulations, or guidelines for different water reuse applications (e. g. Cyprus, France, Greece, Italy, and Spain).
However, after an evaluation carried out by the European Commission (EC) on the water reuse standards of several member states it was concluded that they differ in their approach. There are important divergences among the different standards regarding the permitted uses, the parameters to be monitored, and the limit values allowed. This lack of harmonization among water reuse standards might create some trade barriers for agricultural goods irrigated with reclaimed water. Once on the common market, the level of safety in the producing member states may be not considered as sufficient by the importing countries. [43] The most representative standards on wastewater reuse from European member states are the following: [42]
Cyprus: Law 106 (I) 2002 Water and Soil pollution control and associated regulations (KDP 772/2003, KDP 269/2005) (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Agriculture, Natural resources and Environment, Water Development Department). France: Jorf num.0153, 4 July 2014. Order of 2014, related to the use of water from treated urban wastewater for irrigation of crops and green areas (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Public Health, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, Ministry of Ecology, Energy and Sustainability). Greece: CMD No 145116. Measures, limits and procedures for reuse of treated wastewater (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Environment, Energy and Climate Change). Italy: DM 185/2003. Technical measures for reuse of wastewater (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Public Health). Portugal: NP 4434 2005. Reuse of reclaimed urban water for irrigation (Issuing Institutions: Portuguese Institute for Quality). Spain: RD 1620/2007. The legal framework for the reuse of treated wastewater (Issuing Institutions: Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Fisheries, Ministry of Health).
Reclaimed water is not regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), but the EPA has developed water reuse guidelines that were most recently updated in 2012. [44] [45] The EPA Guidelines for Water Reuse represents the international standard for best practices in water reuse. The document was developed under a Cooperative Research and Development Agreement between the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the U. S. Agency for International Development (USAID), and the global consultancy CDM Smith. The Guidelines provide a framework for states to develop regulations that incorporate the best practices and address local requirements.
Other countries [ edit ]
Canada: “Canadian guidelines for domestic reclaimed water for use in toilet and urinal flushing” (2010). China: China National Reclaimed Water Quality Standard; China National Standard GB/T 18920-2002, GB/T 19923-2005, GB/T 18921-2002, GB 20922-2007 and GB/T 19772-2005. Israel: Ministry of Health regulation (2005). Japan: National Institute for Land and Infrastructure Management: Report of the Microbial Water Quality Project on Treated Sewage and Reclaimed Wastewater (2008). Jordan: Jordanian technical base n. 893/2006 Jordan water reuse management Plan (policy). Mexico: Mexican Standard NOM-001-ECOL-1996 governing wastewater reuse in Agriculture. South Africa Policies: The latest revision of the Water Services Act of 1997 relating to grey-water and treated effluent (Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, 2001). Tunisia: Standard for the use of treated wastewater in agriculture (NT 106-109 of 1989) and list of crops that can be irrigated with treated wastewater (Ministry of Agriculture, 1994). USA National: United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) “Guidelines for water reuse” (2012). Australia National level Guidelines: Government of Australia (the Natural Resource Management Ministerial Council, the Environment Protection and Heritage Council, and the Australian Health Ministers Conference (NRMMC-EPHC-AHMC)): Guidelines for water recycling: managing health and environmental risks” Phase 1, 2006. [42]
Examples [ edit ]
Australia [ edit ]
When there are droughts in Australia interest in reclaimed effluent options increases. Brisbane has been seen as a leader in this trend, and other cities and towns will review the Western Corridor Recycled Water Project once completed. [46] [5]
While there are currently no full-scale direct potable reuse schemes operating in Australia, the Australian Antarctic Division is investigating the option of installing a potable reuse scheme at its Davis research base in Antarctica. To enhance the quality of the marine discharge from the Davis WWTP, a number of different, proven technologies have been selected to be used in the future, such as ozonation, UV disinfection, chlorine, as well as UF, activated carbon filtration and RO. [5]
Israel [ edit ]
As of 2010, Israel leads the world in the proportion of water it recycles. [47] Israel treats 80% of its sewage (400 billion liters a year), and 100% of the sewage from the Tel Aviv metropolitan area is treated and reused as irrigation water for agriculture and public works. As of today, all the reclaimed sewage water in Israel is used for agricultural and land improvement purposes.
Namibia [ edit ]
An example of direct potable reuse is the case of Windhoek (Namibia, New Goreangab Water Reclamation Plant (NGWRP)), where treated wastewater has been blended with drinking water for more than 40 years. It is based on the multiple treatment barriers concept (i. e. pre-ozonation, enhanced coagulation/dissolved air flotation/rapid sand filtration, and subsequent ozone, biological activated carbon/granular activated carbon, ultrafiltration (UF), chlorination) to reduce associated risks and improve the water quality. [46] The reclaimed wastewater nowadays represent about 14% of the city’s drinking water production. [48]
Singapore [ edit ]
In Singapore reclaimed water is called NEWater and is bottled directly from an advanced water purification facility for educational and celebratory purposes. Though most of the reused water is used for high-tech industry in Singapore, a small amount is returned to reservoirs for drinking water.
At the end of 2002, the programme - successfully branded as NEWater - had garnered a 98 per cent acceptance rate, with 82% of respondents indicating that they would drink the reused water directly, another 16% only when mixed with reservoir water. [49] The produced NEWater after stabilization (addition of alkaline chemicals) is in compliance with the WHO requirements and can be piped off to its wide range of applications (e. g. reuse in industry, discharge to a drinking water reservoir). [50] NEWater now makes up around 30% of Singapore’s total use, by 2060 Singapore’s National Water Agency plans to triple the current NEWater capacity as to meet 50% of Singapore’s future water demand. [51]
South Africa [ edit ]
In South Africa, the main driver for wastewater reuse is drought conditions. [5]
For example, in Beaufort West, South Africa’s a direct wastewater reclamation plant (WRP) for the production of drinking water was constructed in the end of 2010, as a result of acute water scarcity (production of 2,300 m 3 per day). [52] [53] The process configuration based on multi-barrier concept and includes the following treatment processes: sand filtration, UF, two-stage RO, and permeate disinfected by ultraviolet light (UV).
The leaders in use of reclaimed water in the U. S. are Florida and California. [54]
In a January 2012 U. S. National Research Council report, [55] a committee of independent experts found that expanding the reuse of municipal wastewater for irrigation, industrial uses, and drinking water augmentation could significantly increase the United States’ total available water resources. [56]
One example is Orange County which is located in Southern California, USA, and houses a classic example in indirect potable reuse. [38] A large-scale artificial groundwater recharge scheme exists in the area, providing a much-needed freshwater barrier to intruding seawater. [39]
See also [ edit ]
References [ edit ]
^ Bischel, H. N.; J. E. Lawrence; B. J. Halaburka; M. H. Plumlee; COMO. Bawazir; J. P. King; J. E. McCray; V. H. Resh; R. G. Luthy (1 August 2013). "Renewing Urban Streams with Recycled Water for Streamflow Augmentation: Hydrologic, Water Quality, and Ecosystem Services Management". Environmental Engineering Science . 30 : 455–479. doi:10.1089/ees.2012.0201 . Retrieved 10 November 2013 . & # 160; ^ a b Andersson, K., Rosemarin, A., Lamizana, B., Kvarnström, E., McConville, J., Seidu, R., Dickin, S. and Trimmer, C. (2016). Sanitation, Wastewater Management and Sustainability: from Waste Disposal to Resource Recovery. Nairobi and Stockholm: United Nations Environment Programme and Stockholm Environment Institute. ISBN 978-92-807-3488-1 ^ a b c d WHO (2006). WHO Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater, Excreta and Greywater - Volume IV: Excreta and greywater use in agriculture. World Health Organization (WHO), Geneva, Switzerland ^ WWAP (United Nations World Water Assessment Programme) (2017). The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017. Wastewater: The Untapped Resource . Paris. ISBN 978-92-3-100201-4. Archived from the original on 2017-04-08. & # 160; ^ a b c d e Burgess, Jo; Meeker, Melissa; Minton, Julie; O'Donohue, Mark (4 September 2015). "International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse". Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology . 1 (5). doi:10.1039/C5EW00165J. ISSN 2053-1419. & # 160; ^ "Direct Potable Reuse: Benefits for Public Water Supplies, Agriculture, the Environment, and Energy Conservation" (PDF) . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ Creel, Liz. "RIPPLE EFFECTS: POPULATION AND COASTAL REGIONS" (PDF) . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Guidelines for water reuse" (PDF) . USEPA . USEPA . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ "National Water Quality Management Strategy" (PDF) . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Water Recycling and Reuse: The Environmental Benefits". USEPA . USEPA . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Water reuse in Europe. Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation" (PDF) . European Union . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Guidelines for water reuse" (PDF) . USEPA . USEPA . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ Public Utilities Board, Overseas Experiences, accessed 24 April 2007. ^ a b c d e f g "Guidelines for water reuse" (PDF) . USEPA . USEPA . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ "ISO 16075-1:2015 - Guidelines for treated wastewater use for irrigation projects -- Part 1: The basis of a reuse project for irrigation". ISO . & # 160; ^ Wastewater use in agriculture: Not only an issue where water is scarce! International Water Management Institute , 2010. Water Issue Brief 4 ^ Gerrity, D; Pecson, B; Trussell, R. S.; Trussell, R. R. "Potable reuse treatment trains throughout the world" (PDF) . J. Water Supply Res. Technol.-AQUA . 62 : 321–338 . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ Michael-Kordatou, I.; Michael, C.; Duan, X.; He, X.; Dionysiou, D. D.; Mills, M. A.; Fatta-Kassinos, D. (June 2015). "Dissolved effluent organic matter: Characteristics and potential implications in wastewater treatment and reuse applications". Water Research . 77 : 213–248. doi:10.1016/j. watres.2015.03.011. & # 160; ^ University of Colorado ^ "Scientific American Frontiers". Scientific American Frontiers - PBS Programs - PBS . Retrieved 12 March 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Astronauts Drink Recycled Urine, and Celebrate". Space . May 20, 2009. ^ Irrigation with Treated Wastewater: Potential Impacts on Microbial Function and Diversity in Agricultural Soils . Springer . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Water Reuse in Europe - Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation" . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ Zhang, S. X.; V. Babovic (2012). "A real options approach to the design and architecture of water supply systems using innovative water technologies under uncertainty" (PDF) . Journal of Hydroinformatics . & # 160; ^ a b "Water Scarcity, a driver for water reclamation, reuse and collaboration" (PDF) . Retrieved 17 August 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Water Reuse - Environment - European Commission". ec. europa. eu . Retrieved 17 August 2016 . & # 160; ^ Burgess, Jo; Meeker, Melissa; Minton, Julie; O'Donohue, Mark (2015). "International research agency perspectives on potable water reuse". Environ. Sci.: Water Res. Technol . 1 (5): 563–580. doi:10.1039/C5EW00165J. & # 160; ^ Helgeson, Tom (2009). A Reconnaissance-Level Quantitative Comparison of Reclaimed Water, Surface Water, and Groundwater . Alexandria, VA: WateReuse Research Foundation. p. 141. ISBN 978-1-934183-12-0. & # 160; ^ Crook, James (2005). Irrigation of Parks, Playgrounds, and Schoolyards: Extent and Safety . Alexandria, VA: WateReuse Research Foundation. p. 60. ISBN 0-9747586-3-9. & # 160; ^ Water Reuse: Potential for Expanding the Nation's Water Supply through Reuse of Municipal Wastewater . National Research Council. 2012. ISBN 978-0-309-25749-7. & # 160; ^ Kean, Sam (Winter 2015). "Waste Not, Want Not". Distillations . 1 (4): 5 . Retrieved 3 January 2017 . & # 160; ^ Owens, Brian (19 February 2015). "Pharmaceuticals in the environment: a growing problem". The Pharmaceutical Journal . Retrieved 3 January 2017 . & # 160; ^ a b "Water Recycling and Reuse: The Environmental Benefits/". US Environment Protection Agency. 23 February 2016 . Retrieved 22 August 2016 . & # 160; ^ "NATIONAL WATER QUALITY MANAGEMENT STRATEGY" (PDF) . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Water Reuse in Europe - Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation" . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ Khouri, N; Kalbermatten, J. M.; Bartone, C. R. "Reuse of wastewater in agriculture: A guide for planners" (PDF) . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ 33 Usc 1251 seq., 1972, Federal Water Pollution Control Act, Enacted by Congress. ^ a b "Remaking waste as water: The governance of recycled effluent for potable water supply" . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ a b _Potable_Reuse_Workshop. pdf. "Orange County's groundwater replenishment system: Potable reuse for the best available water" Check |url= value (help) . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Advanced reuse: from Windhoek to Singapore and beyond, Water" (PDF) . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Remaking waste as water: The governance of recycled effluent for potable water supply," . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ a b c Alcalde Sanz, Laura; Gawlik, Bernd (1 January 2014). "Water Reuse in Europe - Relevant guidelines, needs for and barriers to innovation". Publications Office of the European Union . Retrieved 17 August 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Water Reuse - Environment - European Commission". ec. europa. eu . Retrieved 17 August 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Environmental Protection Agency" . Retrieved 17 August 2016 . & # 160; ^ 2012 Guidelines for Water Reuse (PDF) . USEPA. 2012 Retrieved 5 July 2014 . & # 160; ^ a b Rodriguez, Clemencia; Van Buynder, Paul; Lugg, Richard; Blair, Palenque; Devine, Brian; Cook, Angus; Weinstein, Philip (17 March 2009). "Indirect Potable Reuse: A Sustainable Water Supply Alternative". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health . 6 (3): 1174–1203. doi:10.3390/ijerph6031174. & # 160; ^ "Arid Israel recycles waste water on grand scale" . Retrieved 12 March 2016 . & # 160; ^ MENGE, J. "TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER FOR RE-USE IN THE DRINKING WATER SYSTEM OF WINDHOEK" (PDF) . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ Water Sensitive Cities . IWA Publishing. & # 160; ^ "Singapore Public Utilities Board" . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Global milestones in water reuse: keys to success and trends in development" . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Risk Assessment for South Africa's first direct wastewater reclamation system for drinking water production" (PDF) . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Beaufort West Water Reclamation Plant: First Direct (Toilet-to-Tap) Water Reclamation Plant in South Africa" (PDF) . Retrieved 29 July 2016 . & # 160; ^ UF Professor: Drought Highlights Value Of Reused WaterArchived 2006-09-07 at the Wayback Machine.. University of Florida News. May 24, 2000. ^ "Water Reuse: Potential for Expanding the Nation's Water Supply through Reuse of Municipal Wastewater (2012) : Division on Earth and Life Studies" . Retrieved 12 March 2016 . & # 160; ^ "Division on Earth and Life Studies" . Retrieved 12 March 2016 . & # 160;
UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972) Brundtlandt Commission Report (1983) Our Common Future (1987) Earth Summit (1992) Rio Declaration on Environment and Development Agenda 21 (1992) Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) ICPD Programme of Action (1994) Earth Charter Lisbon Principles UN Millennium Declaration (2000) Earth Summit 2002 (Rio+10, Johannesburg) United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20, 2012) Sustainable Development Goals.
1. Wastewater – Wastewater, also written as waste water, is any water that has been adversely affected in quality by anthropogenic influence. Wastewater can originate from a combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, municipal wastewater is usually conveyed in a combined sewer or sanitary sewer, and treated at a wastewater treatment plant. Treated wastewater is discharged into receiving water via an effluent pipe, wastewaters generated in areas without access to centralized sewer systems rely on on-site wastewater systems. These typically comprise a septic tank, drain field, and optionally an on-site treatment unit, the management of wastewater belongs to the overarching term sanitation, just like the management of human excreta, solid waste and stormwater. Sewerage is the infrastructure, including pipes, pumps, screens. Soluble organic material such as urea, fruit sugars, soluble proteins, drugs, pharmaceuticals, inorganic particles such as sand, grit, metal particles, ceramics, etc. Soluble inorganic material such as ammonia, road-salt, sea-salt, cyanide, hydrogen sulfide, thiocyanates, thiosulfates, animals such as protozoa, insects, arthropods, small fish, etc. Macro-solids such as napkins, nappies/diapers, condoms, needles, childrens toys, dead animals or plants. Gases such as sulfide, carbon dioxide, methane, etc. Emulsions such as paints, adhesives, mayonnaise, hair colorants, emulsified oils, toxins such as pesticides, poisons, herbicides, etc. The result is that the content of the water will be decreased. Those biochemical reactions create what is measured in the laboratory as the oxygen demand. Such chemicals are also liable to be broken down using strong oxidizing agents, both the BOD and COD tests are a measure of the relative oxygen-depletion effect of a waste contaminant. Both have been adopted as a measure of pollution effect. The BOD test measures the demand of biodegradable pollutants whereas the COD test measures the oxygen demand of oxidizable pollutants. The so-called 5-day BOD measures the amount of oxygen consumed by oxidation of waste contaminants in a 5-day period. The total amount of consumed when the biochemical reaction is allowed to proceed to completion is called the Ultimate BOD. Because the Ultimate BOD is so time consuming, the 5-day BOD has been almost universally adopted as a measure of pollution effect.
2. Reuse – Reuse is the action or practice of using something again, whether for its original purpose or to fulfil a different function. It should be distinguished from recycling, which is the breaking down of used items to make raw materials for the manufacture of new products, Reuse – by taking, but not reprocessing, previously used items – helps save time, money, energy, and resources. In broader economic terms, it can make quality products available to people and organizations with limited means, while generating jobs, historically, financial motivation was one of the main drivers of reuse. Current environmental awareness is gradually changing attitudes and regulations, such as the new packaging regulations, are beginning to reverse the situation. Reuse has certain advantages, Energy and raw materials savings as replacing many single use products with one reusable one reduces the number that need to be manufactured. Refurbishment can bring sophisticated, sustainable, well paid jobs to underdeveloped economies, cost savings for business and consumers as a reusable product is often cheaper than the many single use products it replaces. Some older items were better handcrafted and appreciate in value, disadvantages are also apparent, Reuse often requires cleaning or transport, which have environmental costs. Some items, such as appliances, infant auto seats, older tube TVs. Reusable products need to be more durable than single-use products, and this is particularly significant if only a small proportion of the reusable products are in fact reused. Sorting and preparing items for reuse takes time, which is inconvenient for consumers, special skills are required to tweak the functional throughput of items when devoting them to new uses outside of their original purpose. Being a rather minor disadvantage, metal that is repurposed later on can sometimes contain rust and these services facilitate the transaction and redistribution of unwanted, yet perfectly usable, materials and equipment from one entity to another. The entities that benefit from either side of this service can be businesses, nonprofits, schools, community groups, some maintain a physical space, and others act as a matching service. Reuse centers generally maintain both warehouses and trucks and they take possession of the donated materials and make them available for redistribution or sale. Virtual exchanges do not have space or trucks, but instead allow users to post listings of materials available. Staff will help facilitate the exchange of these materials without taking possession of the materials. United States Goodwill Industries Salvation Army Second Harvest Food Bank Habitat for Humanity ReStores and its all about reuse and keeping good stuff out of landfills. Teleplan Camera Repair has introduced a free camera recycling program through the reuse of cameras, the Bower Reuse and Repair Centre diverts more than 7,500 cubic metres of waste from landfills a year in a building entirely made of salvaged materials. Perth, Western Australia, REmida WA With technological innovations, new applications and shorter product lifetimes there is an increasing quantity of waste electrical.
3. Irrigation – Irrigation is the method in which a controlled amount of water is supplied to plants at regular intervals for agriculture. It is used to assist in the growing of crops, maintenance of landscapes. Additionally, irrigation also has a few uses in crop production. In contrast, agriculture that only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dry land farming. Irrigation systems are used for dust suppression, disposal of sewage. Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area, Irrigation has been a central feature of agriculture for over 5,000 years and is the product of many cultures. Historically, it was the basis for economies and societies across the globe, archaeological investigation has found evidence of irrigation where the natural rainfall was insufficient to support crops for rainfed agriculture. Ancient Egyptians practiced Basin irrigation using the flooding of the Nile to inundate land plots which had surrounded by dykes. The flood water was held until the sediment had settled before the surplus was returned to the watercourse. The Ancient Nubians developed a form of irrigation by using a device called a sakia. Irrigation began in Nubia some time between the third and second millennium BCE and it largely depended upon the flood waters that would flow through the Nile River and other rivers in what is now the Sudan. In sub-Saharan Africa irrigation reached the Niger River region cultures and civilizations by the first or second millennium BCE and was based on wet season flooding, terrace irrigation is evidenced in pre-Columbian America, early Syria, India, and China. These canals are the earliest record of irrigation in the New World, traces of a canal possibly dating from the 5th millennium BCE were found under the 4th millennium canal. Large scale agriculture was practiced and a network of canals was used for the purpose of irrigation. Ancient Persia as far back as the 6th millennium BCE, where barley was grown in areas where the rainfall was insufficient to support such a crop. The Qanats, developed in ancient Persia in about 800 BCE, are among the oldest known irrigation methods still in use today and they are now found in Asia, the Middle East and North Africa. The system comprises a network of wells and gently sloping tunnels driven into the sides of cliffs. The noria, a wheel with clay pots around the rim powered by the flow of the stream, was first brought into use at about this time.
4. Surface water – Surface water is water on the surface of the planet such as in a river, lake, wetland, or ocean. It can be contrasted with groundwater and atmospheric water, non-saline surface water is replenished by precipitation and by recruitment from ground-water. Surface and groundwater are two entities, so they must be regarded as such. However, there is an ever-increasing need for management of the two as they are part of a system that is paramount when the demand for water exceeds the available supply. Depletion of surface and ground water sources for public consumption is caused by over-pumping, aquifers near river systems that are over-pumped have been known to deplete surface water sources as well. Research supporting this has found in numerous water budgets for a multitude of cities. Response times for an aquifer are long, however, a total ban on ground water usage during water recessions would allow surface water to retain better levels required for sustainable aquatic life. By reducing ground water pumping, the water supplies will be able to maintain their levels, as they recharge from direct precipitation, surface runoff. Environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutant Meltwater Optimum water content for tillage Applied Hydrogeology, Fourth Edition by C. W. Fetter.
5. Groundwater – Groundwater is the water present beneath Earths surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. A unit of rock or a deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from, and eventually flows to, the naturally, natural discharge often occurs at springs and seeps. Groundwater is also withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, Groundwater is hypothesized to provide lubrication that can possibly influence the movement of faults. It is likely that much of Earths subsurface contains some water, Groundwater may not be confined only to Earth. The formation of some of the landforms observed on Mars may have influenced by groundwater. There is also evidence that water may also exist in the subsurface of Jupiters moon Europa. Groundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable to pollution than surface water, therefore, it is commonly used for public water supplies. For example, groundwater provides the largest source of water storage in the United States. Underground reservoirs contain far more water than the capacity of all surface reservoirs and lakes in the US, many municipal water supplies are derived solely from groundwater. Polluted groundwater is less visible, but more difficult to clean up, than pollution in rivers, Groundwater pollution most often results from improper disposal of wastes on land. An aquifer is a layer of substrate that contains and transmits groundwater. When water can flow directly between the surface and the zone of an aquifer, the aquifer is unconfined. The deeper parts of unconfined aquifers are more saturated since gravity causes water to flow downward. The upper level of this layer of an unconfined aquifer is called the water table or phreatic surface. Below the water table, where in general all pore spaces are saturated with water, is the phreatic zone, substrate with low porosity that permits limited transmission of groundwater is known as an aquitard.
6. Groundwater recharge – Groundwater recharge or deep drainage or deep percolation is a hydrologic process where water moves downward from surface water to groundwater. Recharge is the method through which water enters an aquifer. This process usually occurs in the zone below plant roots and is often expressed as a flux to the water table surface. Recharge occurs both naturally and through anthropogenic processes, where rainwater and or reclaimed water is routed to the subsurface, groundwater is recharged naturally by rain and snow melt and to a smaller extent by surface water. Recharge may be impeded somewhat by human activities including paving, development and these activities can result in loss of topsoil resulting in reduced water infiltration, enhanced surface runoff and reduction in recharge. Use of groundwaters, especially for irrigation, may lower the water tables. Recharge can help move excess salts that accumulate in the zone to deeper soil layers. Tree roots increase water saturation into groundwater reducing water runoff, flooding temporarily increases river bed permeability by moving clay soils downstream, and this increases aquifer recharge. Artificial groundwater recharge is becoming important in India, where over-pumping of groundwater by farmers has led to underground resources becoming depleted. Another environmental issue is the disposal of waste through the water such as dairy farms, industrial. Wetlands help maintain the level of the table and exert control on the hydraulic head. This provides force for groundwater recharge and discharge to other waters as well, the extent of groundwater recharge by a wetland is dependent upon soil, vegetation, site, perimeter to volume ratio, and water table gradient. Groundwater recharge occurs through mineral soils found primarily around the edges of wetlands The soil under most wetlands is relatively impermeable, a high perimeter to volume ratio, such as in small wetlands, means that the surface area through which water can infiltrate into the groundwater is high. Groundwater recharge is typical in small wetlands such as prairie potholes, researchers have discovered groundwater recharge of up to 20% of wetland volume per season. If water falls uniformly over a field such that capacity of the soil is not exceeded. If instead water puddles in low-lying areas, the water volume concentrated over a smaller area may exceed field capacity resulting in water that percolates down to recharge groundwater. The larger the relative contributing runoff area is, the more focused infiltration is, the recurring process of water that falls relatively uniformly over an area, flowing to groundwater selectively under surface depressions is depression focused recharge. Water tables rise under such depressions, depression focused groundwater recharge can be very important in arid regions.
7. Flush toilet – Flush toilets can be designed for sitting or for squatting, in the case of squat toilets. The opposite of a toilet is a dry toilet, which uses no water for flushing. Flush toilets usually incorporate an S, U, J, or P shaped bend that causes the water in the bowl to collect and act as a seal against sewer gases. Since flush toilets are not designed to handle waste on site, their drain pipes must be connected to waste conveyance. When a toilet is flushed, the flows into a septic tank or sewage system. A flush toilet may be called a lavatory, water closet, loo, comfort room. A flush toilet is different from a urinal, which is designed to handle only liquid waste, or from a bidet, a typical flush toilet is a vitreous, ceramic bowl containing water, plus plumbing to rapidly fill it with more water. The water in the bowl is connected to a hollow drain pipe shaped like an upside-down U connecting the drain. One side of the U channel is arranged as a siphon tube longer than the water in the bowl is high. The siphon tube connects to the drain, the top of the upside-down U-shaped drain pipe limits the height of the water in the bowl before it flows down the drain. If water is poured slowly into the bowl it simply flows over the rim of the upside-down U, the standing water in the bowl acts as a barrier to sewer gas coming out of the sewer through the drain, and also as a receptacle for waste. Sewer gas is vented through a vent pipe attached to the sewer line. When a user flushes a toilet, a flapper valve opens. This rapid influx from the causes the swirling water in the bowl to rapidly rise. This full siphon tube starts the toilets siphonic action, the siphon action quickly “pulls” nearly all of the water and waste in the bowl and the on-rushing tank water down the drain — it flushes. When most of the water has drained out of the bowl, the toilet then gives its characteristic gurgle as the siphonic action ceases and no more water flows out of the toilet. After flushing, the valve in the water tank closes, water lines and valves connected to the water supply refill the toilet tank. Then the toilet is again ready for use, at the top of the toilet bowl is a rim with many angled drain holes that are fed from the tank, which fill, rinse, and induce swirling in the bowl when it is flushed.
8. Drinking water – Drinking water, also known as potable water or improved drinking water, is water that is safe to drink or to use for food preparation, without risk of health problems. Globally, in 2015, 91% of people had access to suitable for drinking. Nearly 4.2 billion had access to tap water while another 2.4 billion had access to wells or public taps,1.8 billion people still use an unsafe drinking water source which may be contaminated by feces. This can result in infectious diarrhea such as cholera and typhoid among others, the amount of drinking water required is variable. It depends on activity, age, health issues. It is estimated that the average American drinks about one litre of water a day with 95% drinking less than three litres per day, for those working in a hot climate, up to 16 liters a day may be required. Water makes up about 60% of weight in men and 55% of weight in women, infants are about 70% to 80% water while the elderly are around 45%. Typically in developed countries, tap water meets drinking water quality standards, other typical uses include washing, toilets, and irrigation. Greywater may also be used for toilets or irrigation and its use for irrigation however may be associated with risks. Water may also be due to levels of toxins or suspended solids. Reduction of waterborne diseases and development of water resources is a major public health goal in developing countries. Bottled water is sold for consumption in most parts of the world. The word potable came into English from the Late Latin potabilis, the amount of drinking water required is variable. It depends on activity, age, health, and environmental conditions. It is estimated that the average American drinks about one litre of water a day with 95% drinking less than three litres per day, for those working in a hot climate, up to 16 litres per day may be required. Some health authorities have suggested that at least eight glasses of eight fl oz each are required by an adult per day, the British Dietetic Association recommends 1.8 litres. However, various reviews of the evidence performed in 2002 and 2008 could not find any scientific evidence recommending eight glasses of water per day. An individuals thirst provides a guide for how much water they require rather than a specific.
9. Fresh water – Fresh water is generally characterized by having low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. The term specifically excludes seawater and brackish water although it does include mineral-rich waters such as chalybeate springs, the term sweet water has been used to describe fresh water in contrast to salt water. The term fresh water does not have the meaning as potable water. Much of the fresh water and ground water is unsuitable for drinking without some form of purification because of the presence of chemical or biological contaminants. It may also be in contact with the underlying underground water. The majority of water on Earth is in ice caps. The source of almost all water is precipitation from the atmosphere, in the form of mist, rain. Fresh water falling as mist, rain or snow contains materials dissolved from the atmosphere and material from the sea, in some cases this acid rain results in pollution of lakes and rivers. In coastal areas fresh water may contain significant concentrations of salts derived from the sea if windy conditions have lifted drops of seawater into the rain-bearing clouds. This can give rise to elevated concentrations of sodium, chloride, magnesium, significant quantities of iron may be transported in this way including the well-documented transfer of iron-rich rainfall falling in Brazil derived from sand-storms in the Sahara in north Africa. Water is an issue for the survival of all living organisms. Some can use water but many organisms including the great majority of higher plants. Out of all the water on Earth, saline water in oceans, seas and saline groundwater make up about 97% of it. Freshwater lakes contain about 87% of this surface water, including 29% in the African Great Lakes, 20% in Lake Baikal in Russia, 21% in the North American Great Lakes. Swamps have most of the balance only a small amount in rivers. In areas with no water on the ground surface, fresh water derived from precipitation may, because of its lower density. Most of the fresh water is frozen in ice sheets. Many areas suffer from lack of distribution of water, such as deserts.
10. Ecosystem – An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment, interacting as a system. These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles, as ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and between organisms and their environment, they can be of any size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces. Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential components of an ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun and it generally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and they also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors, other external factors include time and potential biota. Ecosystems are dynamic entities—invariably, they are subject to disturbances and are in the process of recovering from some past disturbance. Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can have different characteristics simply because they contain different species. The introduction of species can cause substantial shifts in ecosystem function. Internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are controlled by them and are often subject to feedback loops. Other internal factors include disturbance, succession and the types of species present, although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate. Biodiversity affects ecosystem function, as do the processes of disturbance, classifying ecosystems into ecologically homogeneous units is an important step towards effective ecosystem management, but there is no single, agreed-upon way to do this. The term ecosystem was first used in 1935 in a publication by British ecologist Arthur Tansley, Tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment. He later refined the term, describing it as The whole system, including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment. Tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as mental isolates, Tansley later defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term ecotope. G. Raymond Lindeman took these ideas one step further to suggest that the flow of energy through a lake was the driver of the ecosystem. Most mineral nutrients, on the hand, are recycled within ecosystems. Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors, external factors, also called state factors, control the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem.
11. Aquifer – An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated materials from which groundwater can be extracted using a water well. The study of flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology. Related terms include aquitard, which is a bed of low permeability along an aquifer, and aquiclude, if the impermeable area overlies the aquifer, pressure could cause it to become a confined aquifer. Aquifers may occur at various depths and those closer to the surface are not only more likely to be used for water supply and irrigation, but are also more likely to be topped up by the local rainfall. Many desert areas have limestone hills or mountains within them or close to them that can be exploited as groundwater resources, overexploitation can lead to the exceeding of the practical sustained yield, i. e. more water is taken out than can be replenished. The beach provides a model to help visualize an aquifer, if a hole is dug into the sand, very wet or saturated sand will be located at a shallow depth. This hole is a well, the wet sand represents an aquifer. In 2013 large freshwater aquifers were discovered under continental shelves off Australia, China, North America and they contain an estimated half a million cubic kilometers of “low salinity” water that could be economically processed into potable water. The reserves formed when ocean levels were lower and rainwater made its way into the ground in areas that were not submerged until the ice age ended 20,000 years ago. The volume is estimated to be 100x the amount of extracted from other aquifers since 1900. The above diagram indicates typical flow directions in a view of a simple confined or unconfined aquifer system. The system shows two aquifers with one aquitard between them, surrounded by the bedrock aquiclude, which is in contact with a gaining stream, the water table and unsaturated zone are also illustrated. An aquitard is a zone within the earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another, an aquitard can sometimes, if completely impermeable, be called an aquiclude or aquifuge. Aquitards are composed of layers of clay or non-porous rock with low hydraulic conductivity. Groundwater can be found at every point in the Earths shallow subsurface to some degree. Saturated means the head of the water is greater than atmospheric pressure. The definition of the table is the surface where the pressure head is equal to atmospheric pressure. Unsaturated conditions occur above the table where the pressure head is negative.
12. Water cycle – The water cycle, also known as the hydrological cycle or the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. In doing so, the water goes through different forms, liquid, solid, the water cycle involves the exchange of energy, which leads to temperature changes. For instance, when water evaporates, it takes up energy from its surroundings, when it condenses, it releases energy and warms the environment. The evaporative phase of the cycle purifies water which then replenishes the land with freshwater, the flow of liquid water and ice transports minerals across the globe. It is also involved in reshaping the geological features of the Earth, the water cycle is also essential for the maintenance of most life and ecosystems on the planet. The sun, which drives the cycle, heats water in oceans. Water evaporates as water vapor into the air, ice and snow can sublimate directly into water vapour. Evapotranspiration is water transpired from plants and evaporated from the soil, the water vapour molecule H 2O has less density compared to the major components of the atmosphere, nitrogen and oxygen, N2 andO2. Due to the significant difference in mass, water vapor in gas form gains height in open air as a result of buoyancy. However, as increases, air pressure decreases and the temperature drops. The lowered temperature causes water vapour to condense into a liquid water droplet which is heavier than the air. A huge concentration of these droplets over a space up in the atmosphere become visible as cloud. Fog is formed if the water vapour condenses near ground level, as a result of moist air, air currents move water vapour around the globe, cloud particles collide, grow, and fall out of the upper atmospheric layers as precipitation. Some precipitation falls as snow or hail, sleet, and can accumulate as ice caps and glaciers, most water falls back into the oceans or onto land as rain, where the water flows over the ground as surface runoff. A portion of runoff enters rivers in valleys in the landscape, runoff and water emerging from the ground may be stored as freshwater in lakes. Not all runoff flows into rivers, much of it soaks into the ground as infiltration, some water infiltrates deep into the ground and replenishes aquifers, which can store freshwater for long periods of time. Some infiltration stays close to the surface and can seep back into surface-water bodies as groundwater discharge. Some groundwater finds openings in the surface and comes out as freshwater springs.
13. Water management – Water resource management is the activity of planning, developing, distributing and managing the optimum use of water resources. It is a sub-set of water cycle management, ideally, water resource management planning has regard to all the competing demands for water and seeks to allocate water on an equitable basis to satisfy all uses and demands. As with other resource management, this is possible in practice. Water is a resource for all life on the planet. Of the water resources on Earth only three percent of it is fresh and two-thirds of the freshwater is locked up in ice caps and glaciers. Of the remaining one percent, a fifth is in remote, inaccessible areas and much rainfall in monsoonal deluges. As time advances, water is becoming scarcer and having access to clean, safe, at present only about 0.08 percent of all the world’s fresh water is exploited by mankind in ever increasing demand for sanitation, drinking, manufacturing, leisure and agriculture. Due to the percentage of water remaining, optimizing the fresh water we have left from natural resources has been a continuous difficulty in several locations worldwide. Much effort in water management is directed at optimizing the use of water. Examples include rare species or ecosystems or the long term value of ancient groundwater reserves. Agriculture is the largest user of the freshwater resources, consuming 70 percent. It assessed the current availability of water for agriculture on a global scale and it found that a fifth of the worlds people, more than 1.2 billion, live in areas of physical water scarcity, where there is not enough water to meet all their demands. Regarding food production, the World Bank targets agricultural food production and water management as an increasingly global issue that is fostering an important. The authors of the book Out of Water, From abundance to Scarcity and How to Solve the Worlds Water Problems, which laid down a six-point plan for solving the worlds water problems. To avoid a water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry. As the carrying capacity of the Earth increases greatly due to technological advances and this rapid urbanization happens worldwide but mostly in new rising economies and developing countries. Cities in Africa and Asia are growing fastest with 28 out of 39 megacities worldwide in these developing nations, the number of megacities will continue to rise reaching approximately 50 in 2025. With developing economies water scarcity is a common and very prevalent issue.
14. Water scarcity – Water scarcity is the lack of sufficient available water resources to meet water needs within a region. It affects every continent and around 2.8 billion people around the world at least one out of every year. More than 1.2 billion people access to clean drinking water. Water scarcity involves water shortage, water stress or deficits, Water shortages may be caused by climate change, such as altered weather-patterns, increased pollution, and increased human demand and overuse of water. The term water crisis labels a situation where the available potable, two converging phenomena drive water scarcity, growing freshwater use and depletion of usable freshwater resources. Many countries and governments aim to reduce water scarcity, the UN recognizes the importance of reducing the number of people without sustainable access to clean water and sanitation. The Millennium Development Goals within the United Nations Millennium Declaration aimed by 2015 to halve the proportion of people who are unable to reach or to afford safe drinking water. The United Nations estimates that, of 1.4 billion cubic kilometers of water on Earth, more than one in every six people in the world is water stressed, meaning that they do not have sufficient access to potable water. Those that are water stressed make up 1.1 billion people in the world and are living in developing countries. According to the Falkenmark Water Stress Indicator, a country or region is said to experience water stress when annual water supplies drop below 1,700 cubic metres per person per year. At levels between 1,700 and 1,000 cubic meters per person per year, periodic or limited water shortages can be expected, when a country is below 1,000 cubic meters per person per year, the country then faces water scarcity. In 2006, about 700 million people in 43 countries were living below the 1,700 cubic metres per person threshold, the worlds most water stressed region is the Middle East with averages of 1,200 cubic metres of water per person. In China, more than 538 million people are living in a water-stressed region, much of the water stressed population currently live in river basins where the usage of water resources greatly exceed the renewal of the water source. Another popular opinion is that the amount of freshwater is decreasing because of climate change. Climate change has caused receding glaciers, reduced stream and river flow, many aquifers have been over-pumped and are not recharging quickly. Although the total water supply is not used up, much has become polluted, salted, unsuitable or otherwise unavailable for drinking, industry. To avoid a water crisis, farmers will have to strive to increase productivity to meet growing demands for food, while industry. The findings published in the Journal of Climate say that the water shortages resulted from population size more than rainfall, census figures show that Georgia’s population rose from 6.48 to 9.54 million between 1990 and 2007.
15. Constructed wetland – A constructed wetland is an artificial wetland created for the purpose of treating anthropogenic discharge such as municipal or industrial wastewater, or stormwater runoff. It may also be created for land reclamation after mining, refineries, constructed wetlands are engineered systems that use natural functions of vegetation, soil, and organisms to treat different water streams. Depending on the type of wastewater that has to be treated the system has to be adjusted accordingly which means that pre - or post-treatments might be necessary. Constructed wetlands can be designed to emulate the features of natural wetlands, some constructed wetlands may also serve as a habitat for native and migratory wildlife, although that is usually not their main purpose. The two main types of constructed wetlands are subsurface flow and surface flow wetlands, the planted vegetation plays a role in contaminant removal but the filter bed, consisting usually of a combination of sand and gravel, has an equally important role to play. Many terms are used to denote constructed wetlands, such as reed beds, soil infiltration beds, constructed treatment wetlands, treatment wetlands, beside engineered wetlands, the terms of man-made or artificial wetlands are often found as well. A biofilter has some similarities with a wetland, but is usually without plants. However, the term of constructed wetlands can also be used to describe restored and recultivated land that was destroyed in the past through draining and converting into farmland, ponds for wastewater treatment or water purification are not considered as constructed wetlands. They are referred to as ponds or treatment ponds, respectively. A constructed wetland is a sequence of water bodies designed to filter and treat waterborne pollutants found in sewage. Constructed wetlands are used for treatment or for greywater treatment. They can be used after a tank for primary treatment. Some CW designs however do not use upfront primary treatment, vegetation in a wetland provides a substrate upon which microorganisms can grow as they break down organic materials. This community of microorganisms is known as the periphyton, the periphyton and natural chemical processes are responsible for approximately 90 percent of pollutant removal and waste breakdown. The plants remove about seven to ten percent of pollutants, different species of aquatic plants have different rates of heavy metal uptake, a consideration for plant selection in a constructed wetland used for water treatment. Constructed wetlands are of two types, subsurface flow and surface flow wetlands. Many regulatory agencies list treatment wetlands as one of their recommended best management practices for controlling urban runoff, in most cases, the bottom is lined with either a polymer geomembrane, concrete or clay in order to protect the water table and surrounding grounds. The substrate can be either gravel—generally limestone or pumice/volcanic rock, depending on local availability, subsurface flow wetlands can be further classified as horizontal flow and vertical flow constructed wetlands.
16. Sustainable sanitation – Sustainable sanitation is a type of sanitation system which strives to be sustainable in all respects. Sustainable sanitation, defined in this way, may or may not have an emphasis on reuse of excreta and this approach to sanitation requires a systems approach, rather than only focussing on the toilet itself. The experience of the user, waste collection methods, transportation or conveyance of waste, waste treatment, the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation of the WHO and UNICEF was responsible for monitoring progress towards the Millennium Development Goal for drinking water and sanitation. For reasons of simplicity — being able to monitor the situation with household surveys — the JMP had to find a simple differentiation between improved sanitation and unimproved sanitation. In some circumstances improved sanitation facilities can be regarded as not sustainable and this is because it depends on the sanitation system, of which the toilet is only one part. In comparison, ecological sanitation has a focus on the reuse of excreta. The main objective of a system is to protect and promote human health by providing a clean environment. The topic also covers such as hygiene, nutrition and the improvement of livelihood achieved by the application of a certain sanitation system. Technology and operation aspects incorporate the functionality and the ease with which the system can be constructed, operated and monitored using the human resources. It also concerns the suitability to achieve an efficient substance flow management from a point of view. Financial and economic issues relate to the capacity of households and communities to pay for sanitation, including the construction, maintenance and depreciation of the system. Most sanitation systems have been designed with the five aspects in mind, in line with good governance principles, decision-making should involve participation of all stakeholders, especially the consumers and providers of services. Waste should be considered a resource, and its management should be holistic and form part of integrated water resource, nutrient flow, the domain in which environmental sanitation problems are resolved should be kept to the minimum practicable size. These planning guidelines have been revised further and are now used in training courses for urban planners. Simple urinals with separate collector systems could be installed instead of using toilets, greywater could be source-separated from the blackwater from toilets thus simplifying its treatment and providing opportunities for reuse. Cess pits e. g. from pour-flush toilets could be equipped with a safety zone of additional material to prevent contamination of ground water. Above ground dry toilets with urine diversion could be installed in dry areas lacking water, rocky areas where pits are expensive to dig and areas with water tables. With respect to the other sustainability factors, key areas of attention the creation of an environment, market development.
17. Excreta reuse – Reuse of excreta refers to the safe, beneficial use of animal or human excreta, i. e. feces and urine. Such beneficial use can be as a soil conditioner or fertilizer in agriculture, gardening, other possible uses include use as building material, fuel source or protein production. An alternative term is also use of rather than reuse as strictly speaking it is the first use of excreta. The WHO Guidelines from 2006 have set up a framework how this reuse can be done safely by following a multiple barrier approach, reuse of sanitised excreta in agriculture has also been called a closing the loop approach for sanitation and agriculture and is central to the ecological sanitation approach. Reuse of excreta is the step of the sanitation chain which starts with collection of excreta and continues with transport. Wastewater management and sanitation systems that are designed for safe, effective recovery of resources can play an important role in a community’s overall resource management. The resources available in wastewater and non-waterborne excreta include water, plant nutrients, organic matter and it is often more efficient to combine wastewater and excreta with other organic waste such as manure, food and crop waste for the purposes of resource recovery. The most common types of wastewater and excreta reuse are discussed below, energy, for example digesting faeces and other organic waste to produce biogas, or producing combustible fuels. Other options include wastewater heat recovery and hydroelectric generation, constructed wetlands fed by wastewater provide both treatment and habitats for flora and fauna. Other, other emerging reuse options include producing protein feeds for livestock using black soldier fly larvae, research into how to make reuse of urine and feces safe in agriculture was carried out in Sweden since the 1990s. In 2006 the World Health Organisation provided guidelines on safe reuse of wastewater, excreta, the multiple barrier concept to reuse, which is the key cornerstone of this publication, has led to a clear understanding on how excreta reuse can be done safely. The concept is used in water supply and food production and is generally understood as a series of treatment steps. The degree of treatment required for excreta-based fertilisers before they can safely be used in agriculture depends on a number of factors and it mainly depends on which other barriers will be put in place according to the multiple barrier concept. In the case of phosphorus in particular, reuse of excreta is one method to recover phosphorus to mitigate the looming shortage of economical mined phosphorus. Mined phosphorus is a resource that is being used up for fertiliser production at an ever-increasing rate. Therefore, phosphorus from excreta-based fertilizers is an alternative to fertilizers containing mined phosphate ore. Urine contains large quantities of nitrogen, as well as quantities of dissolved potassium. The nutrient concentrations in urine vary with diet, in particular nitrogen content in urine is related to quantity of protein in the diet.
18. Sustainability – In ecology, sustainability is the property of biological systems to remain diverse and productive indefinitely. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of biological systems. In more general terms, sustainability is the endurance of systems, the organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development, which includes the four interconnected domains, ecology, economics, politics and culture. Sustainability science is the study of development and environmental science. Sustainability can also be defined as a process characterized by the pursuit of a common ideal. An ideal is by definition unattainable in a time and space. However, by persistently and dynamically approaching it, the results in a sustainable system. Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival of humans, ways of reducing negative human impact are environmentally-friendly chemical engineering, environmental resources management and environmental protection. Information is gained from green chemistry, earth science, environmental science, Ecological economics studies the fields of academic research that aim to address human economies and natural ecosystems. Moving towards sustainability is also a challenge that entails international and national law, urban planning and transport, local and individual lifestyles. The name sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere, sustain can mean “maintain, support, or endure”. ”The 2005 World Summit on Social Development identified sustainable development goals, such as economic development, social development and environmental protection. This view has been expressed as an illustration using three overlapping ellipses indicating that the three pillars of sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing, in fact, the three pillars are interdependent, and in the long run none can exist without the others. The three pillars have served as a ground for numerous sustainability standards and certification systems in recent years. Standards which today explicitly refer to the bottom line include Rainforest Alliance, Fairtrade. Some sustainability experts and practitioners have illustrated four pillars of sustainability, one such pillar is future generations, which emphasizes the long-term thinking associated with sustainability. There is also an opinion that considers resource use and financial sustainability as two pillars of sustainability. Sustainable development consists of balancing local and global efforts to meet human needs without destroying or degrading the natural environment. The question then becomes how to represent the relationship between those needs and the environment, a study from 2005 pointed out that environmental justice is as important as sustainable development.
19. Sewerage – Sewerage is the infrastructure that conveys sewage or surface runoff. It encompasses components such as receiving drains, manholes, pumping stations, storm overflows, Sewerage ends at the entry to a sewage treatment plant or at the point of discharge into the environment. It is the system of pipes, chambers, manholes, etc. that conveys the sewage or storm water, according to this definition, sewerage and sewage are two different terms. However, at least in American English colloquial usage, both terms are used interchangeably. The main part of a system is made up of large pipes that convey the sewage from the point of production to the point of treatment. In certain areas it has resulted in a significant lowering of the water table, in the example of Belgium, a lowering of the water table by 100 meters has been the result. The freshwater that is accumulated by the system is then piped to the sea. In areas where this is a concern, vacuum sewers may be used due to the shallow excavation that is possible for them. Severe constraints are applied to sewerage, which may result in premature deterioration and these include root intrusion, joint displacement, cracks and holes formation leading to a significant volume of leakage with an overall risk for the environment and public health. For example, it is estimated that 500 million m3 of contaminated water per year can leak into soil, the rehabilitation and replacement of damaged sewers is very costly. Annual rehabilitation costs for Los Angeles County are about €400 million, and in Germany, hydrogen sulfide is indirectly responsible for biogenic sulfide corrosion and consequently, sewerage need rehabilitation works. Various repairs options are available to Owners over a range of costs. Depending of the condition and contamination, the cleaning can range from simple high pressure jet water cleaning up to real hydro-demolition. One method to ensure sound concrete is exposed is to verify that the surface pH is superior to 10, as for any concrete repair, the state-of-the-art rules must be followed. It utilizes classical facade rotor pump, easily available in the market, the main drawback is the limited pumping distance that cannot exceed 75 meters. Spinning head wet spray, this method is similar to the first and this method is fast and especially suited for cylindrical chambers like manholes. When a structure is so severely corroded that man entry is a risk, high pressure dry spray, this method, also called “shotcrete” or “gunite” is allowing a faster rate of rehabilitation, and also to make a thicker application in a single pass. The main interest of dry shotcrete is the capacity to pump the mortar over a long distance, longest dry shotcrete distance the authors are aware is a job site in Australia in 2014 where 100% calcium aluminate mortar was air transported over 800 meters before being sprayed.
20. Wastewater treatment plant – The latter is called water reclamation and implies avoidance of disposal by use of treated wastewater effluent for various purposes. Treatment means removing impurities from water being treated, and some methods of treatment are applicable to water and wastewater. The physical infrastructure used for treatment is called a wastewater treatment plant. By-products from wastewater treatment plants, such as screenings, grit, if the wastewater is predominantly from municipal sources it is called sewage and its treatment is called sewage treatment. Although disposal or reuse occurs after treatment, it must be considered first, since disposal or reuse are the objectives of wastewater treatment, disposal or reuse options are the basis for treatment decisions. Acceptable impurity concentrations may vary with the type of use or location of disposal, ocean disposal is subject to international treaty requirements. International treaties may also regulate disposal into rivers crossing international borders, water bodies entirely within the jurisdiction of a single nation may be subject to regulations of multiple local governments. Acceptable impurity concentrations may vary widely among different jurisdictions for disposal of wastewater to evaporation ponds, infiltration basins, phase separation transfers impurities into a non-aqueous phase. Phase separation may occur at points in a treatment sequence to remove solids generated during oxidation or polishing. Grease and oil may be recovered for fuel or saponification, solids often require dewatering of sludge in a wastewater treatment plant. Disposal options for dried solids vary with the type and concentration of impurities removed from water, production of waste brine, however, may discourage wastewater treatment removing dissolved inorganic solids from water by methods like ion exchange, reverse osmosis, and distillation. Solids and non-polar liquids may be removed from wastewater by gravity when density differences are sufficient to overcome dispersion by turbulence, gravity separation of solids is the primary treatment of sewage, where the unit process is called primary settling tanks or primary sedimentation tanks. It is also used for the treatment of other wastewaters. Solids that are heavier than water will accumulate at the bottom of quiescent settling basins, more complex clarifiers also have skimmers to simultaneously remove floating grease like soap scum and solids like feathers or wood chips. Containers like the API oil-water separator are specifically designed to separate non-polar liquids, other types of water filters remove impurities by chemical or biological processes described below. Oxidation reduces the oxygen demand of wastewater, and may reduce the toxicity of some impurities. Secondary treatment converts some impurities to carbon dioxide, water, chemical oxidation is widely used for disinfection. Secondary treatment by biochemical oxidation of dissolved and colloidal organic compounds is used in sewage treatment and is applicable to some agricultural and industrial waste waters.
21. World Health Organization – The World Health Organization is a specialised agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health. It was established on 7 April 1948, headquartered in Geneva, the WHO is a member of the United Nations Development Group. Its predecessor, the Health Organization, was an agency of the League of Nations, the constitution of the World Health Organization had been signed by 61 countries on 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office international dhygiène publique and the League of Nations Health Organization, since its creation, it has played a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. The WHO is responsible for the World Health Report, an international publication on health, the worldwide World Health Survey. The head of WHO is Margaret Chan, the 2014/2015 proposed budget of the WHO is about US$4 billion. About US$930 million are to be provided by member states with a further US$3 billion to be from voluntary contributions, after failing to get a resolution passed on the subject, Alger Hiss, the Secretary General of the conference, recommended using a declaration to establish such an organisation. Dr. Sze and other delegates lobbied and a declaration passed calling for a conference on health. The use of the world, rather than international, emphasised the truly global nature of what the organisation was seeking to achieve. The constitution of the World Health Organization was signed by all 51 countries of the United Nations and it thus became the first specialised agency of the United Nations to which every member subscribed. Its constitution formally came into force on the first World Health Day on 7 April 1948, the first meeting of the World Health Assembly finished on 24 July 1948, having secured a budget of US$5 million for the 1949 year. Andrija Stampar was the Assemblys first president, and G. Brock Chisholm was appointed Director-General of WHO and its first priorities were to control the spread of malaria, tuberculosis and sexually transmitted infections, and to improve maternal and child health, nutrition and environmental hygiene. Its first legislative act was concerning the compilation of statistics on the spread. The logo of the World Health Organization features the Rod of Asclepius as a symbol for healing, in 1947 the WHO established an epidemiological information service via telex, and by 1950 a mass tuberculosis inoculation drive using the BCG vaccine was under way. In 1955, the eradication programme was launched, although it was later altered in objective. 1965 saw the first report on diabetes mellitus and the creation of the International Agency for Research on Cancer. In 1958, Viktor Zhdanov, Deputy Minister of Health for the USSR, called on the World Health Assembly to undertake an initiative to eradicate smallpox. At this point,2 million people were dying from smallpox every year, in 1966, WHO moved into its headquarters building.
22. Food security – Food security is a condition related to the supply of food, and individuals access to it. Concerns over food security have existed throughout history, at the 1974 World Food Conference the term food security was defined with an emphasis on supply. Later definitions added demand and access issues to the definition, household food security exists when all members, at all times, have access to enough food for an active, healthy life. Individuals who are food secure do not live in hunger or fear of starvation, in the years 2011-2013, an estimated 842 million people were suffering from chronic hunger. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, or FAO, identified the four pillars of food security as availability, access, utilization, and stability. The United Nations recognized the Right to Food in the Declaration of Human Rights in 1948, the 1996 World Summit on Food Security declared that food should not be used as an instrument for political and economic pressure. Food security indicators and measures are derived from country level household income, in general the objective of food security indicators and measures is to capture some or all of the main components of food security in terms of food availability, access and utilization or adequacy. While availability and utilization/adequacy seemed much easier to estimate, thus more popular, the factors influencing household food access are often context specific. Household Hunger Scale - measures the experience of household food deprivation based on a set of reactions, captured through a survey. Coping Strategies Index - assesses household behaviours and rates them based on a set of varied established behaviours on how households cope with food shortages. The methodology for research is based on collecting data on a single question, What do you do when you do not have enough food. Food insecurity is measured in the United States by questions in the Census Bureaus Current Population Survey, the FAO, World Food Programme, and International Fund for Agricultural Development collaborate to produce The State of Food Insecurity in the World. The 2012 edition described improvements made by the FAO to the prevalence of undernourishment indicator that is used to measure rates of food insecurity. New features include revised minimum dietary energy requirements for individual countries, updates to the population data. Measurements that factor into the indicator include dietary energy supply, food production, food prices, food expenditures, the stages of food insecurity range from food secure situations to full-scale famine. A new peer-reviewed journal of Food Security, The Science, Sociology and Economics of Food Production, with its prevalence of undernourishment indicator, the FAO reported that almost 870 million people were chronically undernourished in the years 2010-2012. This represents 12. 5% of the population, or 1 in 8 people. Higher rates occur in developing countries, where 852 million people are chronically undernourished, the UN noted that about 2 billion people do not consume a sufficient amount of vitamins and minerals.
23. Human waste – Human Waste is Suffocations debut EP released by Relapse Records. This was also the first CD ever to be released by Relapse, infecting The Crypts, Mass Obliteration, and Jesus Wept were re-recorded on the following album, Effigy of the Forgotten. Synthetically Revived was also re-recorded on Pierced from Within and Catatonia was re-recorded for the Despise the Sun EP, the only track that has not been re-recorded is the title track, which was originally recorded for the demo Reincremated. It was re-released in 2005 with two tracks taken from the 1990 demo Reincremated. Tracks 7 and 8 on the re-release are Involuntary Slaughter and Reincremation, jacobson - Executive Producer Suffocation - Producer Ron Spencer - Artwork.
24. Greywater – Greywater or sullage is all wastewater generated in households or office buildings from streams without fecal contamination, i. e. all streams except for the wastewater from toilets. Sources of greywater include, e. g. sinks, showers, baths, the use of non-toxic and low-sodium soap and personal care products is recommended to protect vegetation when reusing greywater for irrigation purposes. Greywater, by definition, does not include the discharge of toilets or highly fecally contaminated wastewater, when greywater is mixed with toilet wastewater, it is called sewage or blackwater and should be treated in sewage treatment plants or onsite sewage facility, which often is a septic system. When it is separate, it may open up interesting decentralized treatment. The separate treatment of greywater falls under the concept of source separation which is one principle commonly applied in ecological sanitation approaches, the main advantage of keeping greywater separate from toilet wastewater is that the pathogen load is much reduced and the greywater is therefore easier to treat and reuse. Treated greywater has many uses, for example toilet flushing or irrigation, in households with conventional flush toilets, greywater makes up about 65% of the total wastewater produced by that household. In may be a source of water for reuse, because there is a close relationship between the production of greywater and the potential demand for toilet flushing water. Greywater usually contains traces of excreta and is therefore not free of pathogens. The excreta comes from washing a persons anal area in the bath and shower, the quality of greywater can deteriorate rapidly during storage because it is often warm, contains some nutrients and organic matter as well as pathogens. Stored greywater also leads to odour nuisances for the same reason, most greywater is easier to treat and recycle than blackwater, because of lower levels of contaminants. If collected using a separate plumbing system from blackwater, domestic greywater can be recycled directly within the home, garden or company, if stored, it must be used within a very short time or it will begin to putrefy due to the organic solids in the water. Recycled greywater of this kind is never safe to drink, but a number of treatment steps can be used to water for washing or flushing toilets. Mechanical systems In constructed wetlands, the plants use contaminants of greywater, such as food particles, as nutrients in their growth. However, salt and soap residues can be toxic to microbial and plant life alike, but can be absorbed and degraded through constructed wetlands and aquatic plants such as sedges, rushes, and grasses. Demand on conventional water supplies and pressure on sewage treatment systems is reduced by the use of greywater, re-using greywater also reduces the volume of sewage effluent entering watercourses which can be ecologically beneficial. In times of drought, especially in areas, greywater use in gardens or toilet systems helps to achieve some of the goals of ecologically sustainable development. S. Greywater use for irrigation appears to be a safe practice, a 2015 epidemiological study found no additional burden of disease among graywater users irrigating arid regions. The safety of reuse of greywater as potable water has also been studied, a few organic micropollutants including benzene were found in greywater in significant concentrations but most pollutants were in very low concentrations.
25. Human population – In demographics, the world population is the total number of humans currently living. As of March 2017, it was estimated at 7.49 billion, the United Nations estimates it will further increase to 11.2 billion in the year 2100. World population has experienced growth since the end of the Great Famine of 1315–17 and the Black Death in 1350. The highest population growth rates – global population increases above 1. 8% per year – occurred between 1955-1975 peaking to 2. 06% between 1965-1970, the growth rate has declined to 1. 18% between 2010-2015 and is projected to decline to 0. 13% by the year 2100. World population reached 7 billion on October 31,2011 according to the United Nations Population Fund, and on March 12,2012 according to the United States Census Bureau. The median age of the population was estimated to be 30.1 years in 2016, with the male median age estimated to be 29.4 years. 2003 UN Population Division population projections for the year 2150 range between 3.2 and 24.8 billion. One of many independent mathematical models supports the estimate, while a 2014 estimate forecasts between 9.3 and 12.6 billion in 2100, and continued growth thereafter. Some analysts have questioned the sustainability of further population growth, highlighting the growing pressures on the environment, global food supplies. Estimates on the number of humans who have ever lived range in the order of 106 to 108 billion. Six of the Earths seven continents are permanently inhabited on a large scale, Asia is the most populous continent, with its 4.3 billion inhabitants accounting for 60% of the world population. The worlds two most populated countries alone, China and India, together constitute about 37% of the worlds population, Africa is the second most populated continent, with around 1 billion people, or 15% of the worlds population. Europes 733 million people make up 12% of the population as of 2012. Northern America, primarily consisting of the United States, Mexico, and Canada, has a population of around 352 million, and Oceania, the least-populated region, has about 35 million inhabitants. Though it is not permanently inhabited by any fixed population, Antarctica has a small, fluctuating international population and this population tends to rise in the summer months and decrease significantly in winter, as visiting researchers return to their home countries. Estimates of world population by their nature are an aspect of modernity, more refined estimates, broken down by continents, were published in the first half of the 19th century, at 600 to 1000 million in the early 1800s and at 800 to 1000 million in the 1840s. Estimates of the population of the world at the time agriculture emerged in around 10,000 BCE have ranged between 1 million and 15 million. Even earlier, genetic evidence suggests humans may have gone through a bottleneck of between 1,000 and 10,000 people about 70,000 BCE, according to the Toba catastrophe theory.
26. Aquifers – An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated materials from which groundwater can be extracted using a water well. The study of flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology. Related terms include aquitard, which is a bed of low permeability along an aquifer, and aquiclude, if the impermeable area overlies the aquifer, pressure could cause it to become a confined aquifer. Aquifers may occur at various depths and those closer to the surface are not only more likely to be used for water supply and irrigation, but are also more likely to be topped up by the local rainfall. Many desert areas have limestone hills or mountains within them or close to them that can be exploited as groundwater resources, overexploitation can lead to the exceeding of the practical sustained yield, i. e. more water is taken out than can be replenished. The beach provides a model to help visualize an aquifer, if a hole is dug into the sand, very wet or saturated sand will be located at a shallow depth. This hole is a well, the wet sand represents an aquifer. In 2013 large freshwater aquifers were discovered under continental shelves off Australia, China, North America and they contain an estimated half a million cubic kilometers of “low salinity” water that could be economically processed into potable water. The reserves formed when ocean levels were lower and rainwater made its way into the ground in areas that were not submerged until the ice age ended 20,000 years ago. The volume is estimated to be 100x the amount of extracted from other aquifers since 1900. The above diagram indicates typical flow directions in a view of a simple confined or unconfined aquifer system. The system shows two aquifers with one aquitard between them, surrounded by the bedrock aquiclude, which is in contact with a gaining stream, the water table and unsaturated zone are also illustrated. An aquitard is a zone within the earth that restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to another, an aquitard can sometimes, if completely impermeable, be called an aquiclude or aquifuge. Aquitards are composed of layers of clay or non-porous rock with low hydraulic conductivity. Groundwater can be found at every point in the Earths shallow subsurface to some degree. Saturated means the head of the water is greater than atmospheric pressure. The definition of the table is the surface where the pressure head is equal to atmospheric pressure. Unsaturated conditions occur above the table where the pressure head is negative.
27. Freshwater – Fresh water is generally characterized by having low concentrations of dissolved salts and other total dissolved solids. The term specifically excludes seawater and brackish water although it does include mineral-rich waters such as chalybeate springs, the term sweet water has been used to describe fresh water in contrast to salt water. The term fresh water does not have the meaning as potable water. Much of the fresh water and ground water is unsuitable for drinking without some form of purification because of the presence of chemical or biological contaminants. It may also be in contact with the underlying underground water. The majority of water on Earth is in ice caps. The source of almost all water is precipitation from the atmosphere, in the form of mist, rain. Fresh water falling as mist, rain or snow contains materials dissolved from the atmosphere and material from the sea, in some cases this acid rain results in pollution of lakes and rivers. In coastal areas fresh water may contain significant concentrations of salts derived from the sea if windy conditions have lifted drops of seawater into the rain-bearing clouds. This can give rise to elevated concentrations of sodium, chloride, magnesium, significant quantities of iron may be transported in this way including the well-documented transfer of iron-rich rainfall falling in Brazil derived from sand-storms in the Sahara in north Africa. Water is an issue for the survival of all living organisms. Some can use water but many organisms including the great majority of higher plants. Out of all the water on Earth, saline water in oceans, seas and saline groundwater make up about 97% of it. Freshwater lakes contain about 87% of this surface water, including 29% in the African Great Lakes, 20% in Lake Baikal in Russia, 21% in the North American Great Lakes. Swamps have most of the balance only a small amount in rivers. In areas with no water on the ground surface, fresh water derived from precipitation may, because of its lower density. Most of the fresh water is frozen in ice sheets. Many areas suffer from lack of distribution of water, such as deserts.
28. Capital expenditure – Capital expenditure or capital expense is an expense where the benefit continues over a long period, rather than being exhausted in a short period. Such expenditure is of a nature and results in acquisition of permanent assets. It is thus distinct from a recurring expense, Capital expense are used by a company to acquire or upgrade physical assets such as property, industrial buildings or equipment. In accounting, a capital expenditure is added to an asset account, CAPEX is commonly found on the cash flow statement under Investment in Plant, Property, and Equipment or something similar in the Investing subsection. For tax purposes, CAPEX is a cost which cannot be deducted in the year in which it is paid or incurred, the general rule is that if the acquired propertys useful life is longer than the taxable year, then the cost must be capitalized. The capital expenditure costs are amortized or depreciated over the life of the asset in question. Further to the above, CAPEX creates or adds basis to the asset or property, in the US, Internal Revenue Code §§263 and 263A deal extensively with capitalization requirements and exceptions. Costs which are expensed in a particular month simply appear on the statement as a cost incurred that month. Costs that are capitalized, however, are amortized or depreciated over multiple years, capitalized expenditures show up on the balance sheet. Most ordinary business expenses are clearly either expensable or capitalizable, but some expenses could be treated either way, capitalized interest if applicable is also spread out over the life of the asset. The counterpart of capital expenditure is operational expenditure, operating expense Total cost of ownership Contract management software Capital cost Cash flow statement Income statement Balance sheet Expenses versus Capital Expenditures, tax terminology in the US.
29. Environmental pollution – Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants. Pollution is often classed as point source or nonpoint source pollution, Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution started from prehistoric times when man created the first fires, metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of horses in concentrated areas made the cities the cesspools of pollution. The Industrial Revolution brought an infusion of untreated chemicals and wastes into local streams that served as the water supply, king Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke became a problem. But the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow and it was the industrial revolution that gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. London also recorded one of the extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858. Pollution issues escalated as population growth far exceeded view ability of neighborhoods to handle their waste problem, reformers began to demand sewer systems, and clean water. In 1870, the conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. There were no toilets in the streets or squares. Visitors, especially women, often became desperate when nature called, in the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelievably primitive. As a metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into civilization until after 1870. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881, as historian Martin Melosi notes, The generation that first saw automobiles replacing the horses saw cars as miracles of cleanliness. By the 1940s, however, automobile-caused smog was an issue in Los Angeles. Other cities followed around the country early in the 20th century. Extreme smog events were experienced by the cities of Los Angeles and Donora, Pennsylvania in the late 1940s, Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the industrial revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. Awareness of atmospheric pollution spread widely after World War II, with fears triggered by reports of fallout from atomic warfare. Then a non-nuclear event, The Great Smog of 1952 in London and this prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation, The Clean Air Act of 1956.
30. Carbon footprint – A carbon footprint is historically defined as the total set of greenhouse gas emissions caused by an expressed as carbon dioxide equivalent. The total carbon footprint cannot be calculated because of the amount of data required. Calculated as carbon dioxide equivalent using the relevant 100-year global warming potential, greenhouse gases can be emitted through transport, land clearance, and the production and consumption of food, fuels, manufactured goods, materials, wood, roads, buildings, and services. For simplicity of reporting, it is expressed in terms of the amount of carbon dioxide, or its equivalent of other GHGs. Most of the carbon footprint emissions for the average U. S. household come from indirect sources and these are distinguished from emissions which come from burning fuel directly in ones car or stove, commonly referred to as direct sources of the consumers carbon footprint. In 2007, carbon footprint was used as a measure of carbon emissions to develop the plan for City of Lynnwood. Carbon footprints are much more specific than ecological footprints since they measure direct emissions of gases that cause climate change into the atmosphere, Carbon footprint is one of a family of footprint indicators, which also includes water footprint and land footprint. An individuals, nations, or organizations carbon footprint can be measured by undertaking a GHG emissions assessment or other calculative activities denoted as carbon accounting, the website then estimates your carbon footprint based on your answers to these questions. A systematic literature review was conducted to determine the best way to calculate individual/household carbon footprints. This review identified 13 calculation principles and subsequently used the principles to evaluate the 15 most popular online carbon footprint calculators. A recent study’s results by Carnegie Mellons Christopher Weber found that the calculation of carbon footprints for products is often filled with large uncertainties. The variables of owning electronic goods such as the production, shipment and it is important to question, and address the accuracy of Carbon Footprint techniques, especially due to its overwhelming popularity. These examples are known as Carbon Offsetting, the counteracting of carbon emissions with an equivalent reduction of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The main influences on carbon footprints include population, economic output and these factors are the main targets of individuals and businesses in order to decrease carbon footprints. Production creates a carbon footprint, scholars suggest that decreasing the amount of energy needed for production would be one of the most effective ways to decrease a carbon footprint. This is due to the fact that Electricity is responsible for roughly 37% of Carbon Dioxide emissions, coal production has been refined to greatly reduce carbon emissions, since the 1980s, the amount of energy used to produce a ton of steel has decreased by 50%. The average U. S. household carbon footprint is about 50 tons CO2e per year, the single largest source of emissions for the typical household is from driving. Transportation as a whole is the largest overall category, followed by housing then food, the carbon footprint of U. S. households is about 5 times greater than the global average, which is approximately 10 tons CO2e per household per year.
31. Water supply – Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities commercial organisations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes. However, about 14% did not have access to a water source and had to use unprotected wells or springs, canals. A clean water supply - in particular water that is not polluted with fecal matter from lack of sanitation - is the single most important determinant of public health. Destruction of water supply and/or sanitation infrastructure after major catastrophes poses the threat of severe epidemics of waterborne diseases. Water supply systems get water from a variety of locations after appropriate treatment, including groundwater, surface water, the water treatment steps include, in most cases, purification, disinfection through chlorination and sometimes fluoridation. Treated water then flows by gravity or is pumped to reservoirs. In the U. S, the single family home uses about 69.3 gallons of water per day. This includes toilet use, washing machine use, showers, baths, tap use, many of the 3.5 billion people having access to piped water receive a poor or very poor quality of service, especially in developing countries where about 80% of the world population lives. Water supply service quality has many dimensions, continuity, water quality, pressure, and it is estimated that about half of the population of developing countries receives water on an intermittent basis. Drinking water quality has a micro-biological and a physico-chemical dimension, there are thousands of parameters of water quality. For more details, please see the entries on water quality, water treatment. Water pressures vary in different locations of a distribution system, Water mains below the street may operate at higher pressures, with a pressure reducer located at each point where the water enters a building or a house. In poorly managed systems, water pressure can be so low as to only in a trickle of water or so high that it leads to damage to plumbing fixtures. Typical UK pressures are 4–5 bar for an urban supply, however, some people can get over eight bars or below one bar. A single iron main pipe may cross a valley, it will have the same nominal pressure. So people at the bottom of a 100-foot hill will get about 3 bars more than those at the top, the effective pressure also varies because of the pressure loss due to supply resistance even for the same static pressure. An urban consumer may have 5 metres of 15 mm pipe running from the main, so the kitchen tap flow will be fairly unrestricted. A rural consumer may have a kilometre of rusted and limed 22 mm iron pipe, for this reason, the UK domestic water system has traditionally employed a cistern feed system, where the incoming supply is connected to the kitchen sink and also a header/storage tank in the attic.
32. Public parks – A park is an area of natural, semi-natural or planted space set aside for human enjoyment and recreation or for the protection of wildlife or natural habitats. It may consist of areas, rocks, soil and trees. In North America, many parks have fields for playing such as association football, baseball and football. Many parks have trails for walking, biking and other activities, some parks are built adjacent to bodies of water or watercourses and may comprise a beach or boat dock area. Often, the smallest parks are in areas, where a park may take up only a city block or less. Urban parks often have benches for sitting and may contain picnic tables, the largest parks can be vast natural areas of hundreds of thousands of square kilometres, with abundant wildlife and natural features such as mountains and rivers. In many large parks, camping in tents is allowed with a permit, many natural parks are protected by law, and users may have to follow restrictions. Large national and sub-national parks are typically overseen by a ranger or a park warden. Large parks may have areas for canoeing and hiking in the months and, in some northern hemisphere countries. The first parks were English deer parks, land set aside for hunting by royalty and they had walls or thick hedges around them to keep game animals in and people out. It was strictly forbidden for commoners to hunt animals in these deer parks and these game preserves evolved into landscaped parks set around mansions and country houses from the sixteenth century onwards. These may have served as hunting grounds but they also proclaimed the owners wealth, an aesthetic of landscape design began in these stately home parks where the natural landscape was enhanced by landscape architects such as Capability Brown. As cities became crowded, the hunting grounds became places for the public. With the Industrial revolution parks took on a new meaning as areas set aside to preserve a sense of nature in the cities, sporting activity came to be a major use for these urban parks. Areas of outstanding natural beauty were also set aside as national parks to prevent their being spoiled by uncontrolled development, in some parks or time periods with high pollen counts, parks tend to be avoided. Park design is influenced by the purpose and audience, as well as by the available land features. A park intended to provide recreation for children may include a playground, a park primarily intended for adults may feature walking paths and decorative landscaping. Specific features, such as riding trails, may be included to support specific activities, the design of a park may determine who is willing to use it.
33. Shoulder (road) – Many wider U. S. as well as Swedish freeways have shoulders on both sides of each directional carriageway, in the median as well as at the outer edges of the road, for additional safety. Shoulders are not intended for use by traffic, although there are exceptions. Shoulders have multiple uses, including, In the event of an emergency or breakdown, Emergency vehicles such as ambulances and police cars may use the shoulder to bypass traffic congestion. Active traffic management, used on busy roads, may allow hard shoulder running by general traffic at reduced speeds during periods of high traffic volumes. In some places a Bus bypass shoulder may be provided which allows bus services to pass stationary traffic, paved shoulders provide additional space should a motorist need to take evasive action or need to recover control of their vehicle before a run-off-road collision occurs. In some urban areas, shoulders are used as travel lanes during peak commuting hours, in some rural areas without sidewalks, pedestrians and cyclists may be allowed to walk or ride on the shoulders. Paved shoulders move water away from the roadway before it can infiltrate into the roads subbase, Shoulders help provide extra structural support of the roadway. The shoulder is slightly narrower than a full traffic lane. In some cases, particularly on older rural roadways, shoulders that initially existed were hardened with gravel rather than being paved with asphalt or concrete, in Britain, motorway shoulders are now paved, but are still known as hard shoulders. Older, gravel shoulders have sometimes been termed soft shoulders by comparison, because the paved surface ends at that point, they are less safe if they need to be used for emergency maneuvers. Modern practice is to build a paved shoulder whenever possible. The Safety Edge is effective on roads where the shoulder is narrow or nonexistent. To save money, the shoulder was not paved to the same thickness as the through lanes, so if vehicles were to attempt to use it as a through lane regularly. In Britain, shoulder running can occur during roadworks, and full depth construction is now standard, in some metro areas, road authorities also allow shoulders to be used as lanes at peak periods. However, rural shoulders often collects various bits of debris that can make driving there less safe. Drivers will sometimes drift into the shoulder when being overtaken by passing vehicles, however, it is extremely unsafe, as well as illegal, to abuse the shoulder by undertaking passing vehicles that are nearer the center of the road. Some roads have a shoulder for significant distances. This makes it difficult for vehicles to pull into the hard shoulder altogether.
34. Aquaculture – Aquaculture, also known as aquafarming, is the farming of fish, crustaceans, molluscs, aquatic plants, algae, and other aquatic organisms. Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater and saltwater populations under controlled conditions, and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, mariculture refers to aquaculture practiced in marine environments and in underwater habitats. According to the FAO, aquaculture Farming implies some form of intervention in the process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated, further, in current aquaculture practice, products from several pounds of wild fish are used to produce one pound of a piscivorous fish like salmon. Particular kinds of aquaculture include fish farming, shrimp farming, oyster farming, mariculture, algaculture, particular methods include aquaponics and integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, both of which integrate fish farming and plant farming. The indigenous Gunditjmara people in Victoria, Australia, may have raised eels as early as 6000 BC, Aquaculture was operating in China circa 2500 BC. When the waters subsided after river floods, some fish, mainly carp, were trapped in lakes, early aquaculturists fed their brood using nymphs and silkworm feces, and ate them. A fortunate genetic mutation of carp led to the emergence of goldfish during the Tang dynasty, japanese cultivated seaweed by providing bamboo poles and, later, nets and oyster shells to serve as anchoring surfaces for spores. Romans bred fish in ponds and farmed oysters in coastal lagoons before 100 CE, in central Europe, early Christian monasteries adopted Roman aquacultural practices. Aquaculture spread in Europe during the Middle Ages since away from the seacoasts, improvements in transportation during the 19th century made fresh fish easily available and inexpensive, even in inland areas, making aquaculture less popular. The 15th-century fishponds of the Trebon Basin in the Czech Republic are maintained as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, a remarkable example is a fish pond dating from at least 1,000 years ago, at Alekoko. Legend says that it was constructed by the mythical Menehune dwarf people, in first half of 18th century, German Stephan Ludwig Jacobi experimented with external fertilization of brown trouts and salmon. He wrote an article Von der künstlichen Erzeugung der Forellen und Lachse, by the latter decades of the 18th century, oyster farming had begun in estuaries along the Atlantic Coast of North America. The word aquaculture appeared in an 1855 newspaper article in reference to the harvesting of ice, in 1859, Stephen Ainsworth of West Bloomfield, New York, began experiments with brook trout. By 1864, Seth Green had established a commercial fish-hatching operation at Caledonia Springs, near Rochester, by 1866, with the involvement of Dr. W. W. Fletcher of Concord, Massachusetts, artificial fish hatcheries were under way in both Canada and the United States. When the Dildo Island fish hatchery opened in Newfoundland in 1889, the word aquaculture was used in descriptions of the hatcheries experiments with cod and lobster in 1890. By the 1920s, the American Fish Culture Company of Carolina, Rhode Island, during the 1940s, they had perfected the method of manipulating the day and night cycle of fish so that they could be artificially spawned year around. Californians harvested wild kelp and attempted to supply around 1900.
35. Greenhouses – A greenhouse is a structure with walls and roof made chiefly of transparent material, such as glass, in which plants requiring regulated climatic conditions are grown. These structures range in size from small sheds to industrial-sized buildings, a miniature greenhouse is known as a cold frame. The interior of a greenhouse exposed to sunlight becomes significantly warmer than the ambient temperature. Many commercial glass greenhouses or hothouses are high tech production facilities for vegetables or flowers, the glass greenhouses are filled with equipment including screening installations, heating, cooling, lighting, and may be controlled by a computer to optimize conditions for plant growth. Different techniques are used to evaluate optimality-degrees and comfort ratio of greenhouse micro-climate in order to reduce production risk prior to cultivation of a specific crop. The idea of growing plants in environmentally controlled areas has existed since Roman times, the Roman emperor Tiberius ate a cucumber-like vegetable daily. The Roman gardeners used artificial methods of growing to have it available for his every day of the year. Cucumbers were planted in wheeled carts which were put in the sun daily, the cucumbers were stored under frames or in cucumber houses glazed with either oiled cloth known as specularia or with sheets of selenite, according to the description by Pliny the Elder. In the 13th century, greenhouses were built in Italy to house the plants that explorers brought back from the tropics. They were originally called giardini botanici, Greenhouses in which the temperature could be manually manipulated first appeared in 15th century Korea. The 15th century treatise, the Sanga Yorok, contains descriptions of greenhouses designed to regulate the temperature and humidity requirements of plants, the concept of greenhouses also appeared in the Netherlands and then England in the 17th century, along with the plants. Some of these early attempts required enormous amounts of work to close up at night or to winterize, there were serious problems with providing adequate and balanced heat in these early greenhouses. Today, the Netherlands has many of the largest greenhouses in the world, the French botanist Charles Lucien Bonaparte is often credited with building the first practical modern greenhouse in Leiden, Holland, during the 1800s to grow medicinal tropical plants. Originally only on the estates of the rich, the growth of the science of botany caused greenhouses to spread to the universities, the French called their first greenhouses orangeries, since they were used to protect orange trees from freezing. As pineapples became popular, pineries, or pineapple pits, were built, experimentation with the design of greenhouses continued during the 17th century in Europe, as technology produced better glass and construction techniques improved. The greenhouse at the Palace of Versailles was an example of their size and elaborateness, it was more than 150 metres long,13 metres wide, a good example of this trend is the pioneering Kew Gardens. Other large greenhouses built in the 19th century included the New York Crystal Palace, Munich’s Glaspalast, in Japan, the first greenhouse was built in 1880 by Samuel Cocking, a British merchant who exported herbs. In the 20th century, the dome was added to the many types of greenhouses.
36. Viticulture – Viticulture is the science, production, and study of grapes. It deals with the series of events occur in the vineyard. It is a branch of the science of horticulture, for this reason, viticulture can be found on every continent except Antarctica. Viticulturists are often involved with winemakers, because vineyard management. A great number of varieties are now approved in the European Union as true grapes for wine-growing and viticulture, the earliest evidence of grape vine cultivation and winemaking dates back 7,000 years. The history of viticulture is closely related to the history of wine, evidence suggests that some of the earliest domestication of Vitis vinifera occurred in the area of the modern countries Georgia and Armenia. The oldest-known winery was discovered in the Areni-1 cave in Vayots Dzor, dated to c. 4100 BC, the site contained a wine press, fermentation vats, jars, and cups. Archaeologists also found V. vinifera seeds and vines, commenting on the importance of the find, McGovern said, The fact that winemaking was already so well developed in 4000 BC suggests that the technology probably goes back much earlier. There is also evidence of domestication in the Near East in the early Bronze Age. Evidence of ancient viticulture is provided by sources, plant remains, historical geography. The remnants of ancient wine jars have been used to determine the culture of wine consumption, in addition to winemaking, grapes have been grown for the production of raisins. With the ability to pollinate itself, over time the hermaphroditic vines were able to sire offspring that were consistently hermaphroditic, during this period, grape cultivation developed from an aspect of local consumption to an important component of international economies and trade. From 1200 BC to 900 BC, the Phoenicians developed viticulture practices that were used in Carthage. Around 500 BC, the Carthaginian writer Mago recorded such practices in a work that was one of the few artifacts to survive the Roman destruction of Carthage during the Third Punic War. The Roman statesman Cato the Elder was influenced by texts, and around 160 BC he wrote De Agricultura. Around 65 AD, the Roman writer Columella produced the most detailed work on Roman viticulture in his twelve-volume text De Re Rustica, columellas work is one of the earliest to detail trellis systems for raising vines off the ground. Columella advocated the use of stakes versus the previously accepted practice of training vines to grow up along tree trunks. Roman viticulturists were among the first to identify steep hillsides as one of the locations to plant vines, because cool air runs downhill.
37. Cooling water – Water cooling is a method of heat removal from components and industrial equipment. As opposed to air cooling, water is used as the heat conductor, the main mechanism for water cooling is convective heat transfer. Cooling water is the water removing heat from a machine or system, cooling water may be recycled through a recirculating system or used in a single pass once-through cooling system. Recirculating systems may be if they rely upon cooling towers or cooling ponds to remove heat or closed if heat removal is accomplished with negligible evaporative loss of cooling water. Environmental regulations emphasize the reduced concentrations of waste products in non-contact cooling water, the advantages of using water cooling over air cooling include waters higher specific heat capacity, density, and thermal conductivity. This allows water to heat over greater distances with much less volumetric flow. The water jacket around an engine is very effective at deadening mechanical noises. Water accelerates corrosion of parts and is a favorable medium for biological growth. Dissolved minerals in water supplies are concentrated by evaporation to leave deposits called scale. Cooling water often requires addition of chemicals to minimize corrosion and insulating deposits of scale, an open water cooling system makes use of evaporative cooling, lowering the temperature of the remaining water. This method was common in internal combustion engines, until scale buildup was observed from dissolved salts. Modern open cooling systems continuously waste a fraction of recirculating water as blowdown to remove dissolved solids at low enough to prevent scale formation. Some open systems use inexpensive tap water, but this requires higher rates than deionized or distilled water. Purified water systems still require blowdown to remove accumulation of byproducts of chemical treatment to prevent corrosion, modern automotive cooling systems are slightly pressurized, often to 15 psi. This raises the boiling-point of the coolant and reduces evaporation, the use of water cooling carries the risk of damage from freezing. Automotive and many other engine cooling applications require the use of a water, antifreeze also inhibits corrosion from dissimilar metals and can increase the boiling point, allowing a wider range of water cooling temperatures. Its distinctive odor also alerts operators to cooling system leaks and problems that would go unnoticed in a cooling system. The heated coolant mixture can also be used to warm the air conditioning system inside the car by means of the heater core, other less common chemical additives are products to reduce surface tension.
38. Cooling towers – A cooling tower is a heat rejection device that rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Common applications include cooling the water used in oil refineries, petrochemical and other chemical plants, thermal power stations. The classification is based on the type of air induction into the tower, although these large towers are very prominent, the vast majority of cooling towers are much smaller, including many units installed on or near buildings to discharge heat from air conditioning. Cooling towers originated in the 19th century through the development of condensers for use with the steam engine, condensers use relatively cool water, via various means, to condense the steam coming out of the cylinders or turbines. This reduces the pressure, which in turn reduces the steam consumption. However the condensers require a supply of cooling water, without which they are impractical. The consumption of cooling water by inland processing and power plants is estimated to reduce power availability for the majority of power plants by 2040–2069. While water usage is not an issue with marine engines, it forms a significant limitation for many land-based systems. In areas with land, the systems took the form of cooling ponds, in areas with limited land, such as in cities. These early towers were positioned either on the rooftops of buildings or as free-standing structures, a hyperboloid cooling tower was patented by the Dutch engineers Frederik van Iterson and Gerard Kuypers in 1918. The first hyperboloid cooling towers were built in 1918 near Heerlen, the first ones in the United Kingdom were built in 1924 at Lister Drive power station in Liverpool, England, to cool water used at a coal-fired electrical power station. An HVAC cooling tower is used to dispose of unwanted heat from a chiller, water-cooled chillers are normally more energy efficient than air-cooled chillers due to heat rejection to tower water at or near wet-bulb temperatures. Air-cooled chillers must reject heat at the higher temperature. In areas with a hot climate, large buildings, hospitals. Generally, industrial cooling towers are much larger than HVAC towers, HVAC use of a cooling tower pairs the cooling tower with a water-cooled chiller or water-cooled condenser. A ton of air-conditioning is defined as the removal of 12,000 BTU/hour, the equivalent ton on the cooling tower side actually rejects about 15,000 BTU/hour due to the additional waste heat-equivalent of the energy needed to drive the chillers compressor. This equivalent ton is defined as the rejection in cooling 3 US gallons/minute of water 10 °F. This COP is equivalent to an energy efficiency ratio of 14, Cooling towers are also used in HVAC systems that have multiple water source heat pumps that share a common piping water loop.
39. Concrete – Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, when aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the water and other ingredients to form a matrix that binds the materials together into a durable stone-like material that has many uses. Often, additives are included in the mixture to improve the properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials embedded to provide tensile strength, famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon. The earliest large-scale users of technology were the ancient Romans. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the dome of the Pantheon is the worlds largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large concrete structures are made with reinforced concrete. After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was redeveloped in the mid-18th century, today, concrete is the most widely used man-made material. The word concrete comes from the Latin word concretus, the passive participle of concrescere, from con-. Perhaps the earliest known occurrence of cement was twelve years ago. A deposit of cement was formed after an occurrence of oil shale located adjacent to a bed of limestone burned due to natural causes and these ancient deposits were investigated in the 1960s and 1970s. On a human timescale, small usages of concrete go back for thousands of years and they discovered the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of houses, concrete floors. The cisterns were kept secret and were one of the reasons the Nabataea were able to thrive in the desert, some of these structures survive to this day. In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, it was re-discovered that adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater, similarly, the Romans knew that adding horse hair made concrete less liable to crack while it hardened, and adding blood made it more frost-resistant. Crystallization of strätlingite and the introduction of pyroclastic clays creates further fracture resistance, german archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann found concrete floors, which were made of lime and pebbles, in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to 1400–1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC, the Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct made use of waterproof concrete.
40. Soil compaction – In geotechnical engineering, soil compaction is the process in which a stress applied to a soil causes densification as air is displaced from the pores between the soil grains. When stress is applied that causes densification due to water being displaced from between the grains, then consolidation, not compaction, has occurred. Normally, compaction is the result of heavy machinery compressing the soil, affected soils become less able to absorb rainfall, thus increasing runoff and erosion. Plants have difficulty in compacted soil because the grains are pressed together, leaving little space for air and water. Burrowing animals also find it an environment, because the denser soil is more difficult to penetrate. The ability of a soil to recover from this type of compaction depends on climate, mineralogy, soils with high shrink-swell capacity, such as vertisols, recover quickly from compaction where moisture conditions are variable. But clays which do not crack as they dry cannot recover from compaction on their own unless they host ground-dwelling animals such as earthworms — the Cecil soil series is an example, Soil compaction is a vital part of the construction process. It is used for support of structural entities such as building foundations, roadways, walkways, for a given soil type certain properties may deem it more or less desirable to perform adequately for a particular circumstance. When an area is to be filled or backfilled the soil is placed in layers called lifts, the ability of the first fill layers to be properly compacted will depend on the condition of the natural material being covered. In order to determine if the soil will support the first fill layers. Proofrolling consists of utilizing a piece heavy construction equipment to roll across the fill site and these areas will be indicated by the development of rutting, pumping, or ground weaving. To ensure adequate soil compaction is achieved, project specifications will indicate the required soil density or degree of compaction that must be achieved and these specifications are generally recommended by a geotechnical engineer in a geotechnical engineering report. It also has an influence on how the materials should be compacted in given situations. Compaction is accomplished by use of heavy equipment, in sands and gravels, the equipment usually vibrates, to cause re-orientation of the soil particles into a denser configuration. In silts and clays, a roller is frequently used, to create small zones of intense shearing. Determination of adequate compaction is done by determining the density of the soil. The most commonly used laboratory test is called the Proctor compaction test and they are the standard Proctor and modified Proctor tests, the modified Proctor is more commonly used. For small dams, the standard Proctor may still be the reference, while soil under structures and pavements needs to be compacted, it is important after construction to decompact areas to be landscaped so that vegetation can grow.
41. Dust control – Dust is fine particles of matter. It generally consists of particles in the atmosphere that come from sources such as soil, dust lifted by weather, volcanic eruptions. House dust mites are present indoors wherever humans live, positive tests for dust mite allergies are extremely common among people with asthma. Dust mites are microscopic arachnids whose primary food is dead skin cells. They and their feces and other allergens they produce are major constituents of house dust and they are generally found on the floor and other surfaces until disturbed. It could take somewhere between twenty minutes and two hours for dust mites to settle back down out of the air, Dust mites are a nesting species that prefers a dark, warm, and humid climate. They flourish in mattresses, bedding, upholstered furniture, and carpets and their feces include enzymes that are released upon contact with a moist surface, which can happen when a person inhales, and these enzymes can kill cells within the human body. House dust mites did not become a problem until humans began to use textiles, such as western style blankets and clothing. Atmospheric or wind-borne dust, also known as aeolian dust, comes from arid and dry regions where high velocity winds are able to remove mostly silt-sized material, Dust in the atmosphere is produced by saltation and sandblasting of sand-sized grains, and it is transported through the troposphere. This airborne dust is considered an aerosol and once in the atmosphere, saharan dust in particular can be transported and deposited as far as the Caribbean and the Amazon basin, and may affect air temperatures, cause ocean cooling, and alter rainfall amounts. Dust in the Middle East has been a historic phenomenon, recently, because of climate change and the escalating process of desertification, the problem has worsened dramatically. As a multi-factor phenomenon, there is not yet a consensus on the sources or potential solutions to the problem. In Iran, the dust is already affecting more than 5 million people directly, in the province of Khuzestan it has led to the severe reduction of air quality. The amount of pollutants in the air has surpassed more than 50 times the normal level several times in a year, recently, initiatives such as Project-Dust have been established to directly study the Middle Eastern dust. Dust kicked up by vehicles traveling on roads may make up 33% of air pollution, road dust consists of deposits of vehicle exhausts and industrial exhausts, particles from tire and brake wear, dust from paved roads or potholes, and dust from construction sites. Road dust is a significant source contributing to the generation and release of particulate matter into the atmosphere. Control of road dust is a significant challenge in urban areas, road dust may be suppressed by mechanical methods like street sweeper vehicles equipped with vacuum cleaners, vegetable oil sprays, or with water sprayers. Improvements in automotive engineering have reduced the amount of PM10s produced by road traffic, coal dust is responsible for the lung disease known as pneumoconiosis, including black lung disease that occurs among coal miners.
42. Golf course – A golf course is the grounds where the game of golf is played. It comprises a series of holes, each consisting of a ground, a fairway, the rough and other hazards. A standard round of golf consists of 18 holes, most courses contain 18 holes, some share fairways or greens, and a subset has nine holes, played twice per round. Par-3 courses consist of nine or 18 holes all of which have a par of three strokes, many older courses are links, often coastal. Courses are private, public, and municipally owned, and typically feature a pro shop, many private courses are found at country clubs. Although a specialty within landscape design or landscape architecture, golf course architecture is considered a field of study. While golf courses often follow the landscape, some modification is unavoidable. This is increasingly the case as new courses are likely to be sited on less optimal land. Bunkers and sand traps are almost always artificial, although other hazards may be natural, the layout of a fairway follows certain traditional principles, such as the number of holes, their par values, and the number of holes of each par value per course. It is also preferable to arrange greens to be close to the tee box of the next hole, to minimize travel distance while playing a round. Combined with the need to all the fairways within what is frequently a compact square or rectangular plot of land. In complex areas, two holes may share the same tee box, fairway, or even green and it is also common for separate tee-off points to be positioned for men, women, and amateurs, each one respectively lying closer to the green. Eighteen-hole courses are traditionally broken down into a front 9 and a back 9. On older courses, the holes may be out in one long loop, beginning and ending at the clubhouse, and thus the front 9 is referred to on the scorecard as out. More recent courses tend to be designed with the front 9, a successful design is as visually pleasing as it is playable. Most golf courses have only par-3, -4, and -5 holes, typical distances for the various holes from standard tees are as follows. Terrain can also be a factor, so that a long downhill hole might be rated par 4 and this compensates for the generally longer distance pro players can put on tee and fairway shots as compared to the average bogey golfer. The game of golf is played in what is called a round and this consists of playing a set number of holes in an order predetermined by the course.
43. Recreational – Recreation is an activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time. The need to do something for recreation is an element of human biology and psychology. Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasure and are considered to be fun. The term recreation appears to have used in English first in the late 14th century, first in the sense of refreshment or curing of a sick person. Other factors that account for a role of recreation are affluence, population trends. This direction of thought has even extended to the view that leisure is the purpose of work, and a reward in itself. Leisure is considered a right under the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Recreation is difficult to separate from the concept of play. Children may playfully imitate activities that reflect the realities of adult life, a traditional view holds that work is supported by recreation, recreation being useful to recharge the battery so that work performance is improved. Many activities may be work for one person and recreation for another, or, at a level, over time recreational activity may become work. Thus, for a musician, playing an instrument may be at one time a profession, similarly, it may be difficult to separate education from recreation as in the case of recreational mathematics. Recreation is an part of human life and finds many different forms which are shaped naturally by individual interests. Recreational activities can be communal or solitary, active or passive, outdoors or indoors, healthy or harmful, a significant section of recreational activities are designated as hobbies which are activities done for pleasure on a regular basis. Some recreational activities - such as gambling, recreational use, or delinquent activities - may violate societal norms. Public space such as parks and beaches are venues for many recreational activities. Tourism has recognized that many visitors are attracted by recreational offerings. In support of recreational activities government has taken an important role in their creation, maintenance, and organization, many recreational activities are organized, typically by public institutions, voluntary group-work agencies, private groups supported by membership fees, and commercial enterprises. Examples of each of these are the National Park Service, the YMCA, the Kiwanis, Recreation has many health benefits, and, accordingly, Therapeutic Recreation has been developed to take advantage of this effect.
44. Snowmaking – Snowmaking is the production of snow by forcing water and pressurized air through a snow gun, also known as a snow cannon, on ski slopes. Snowmaking is mainly used at ski resorts to supplement natural snow and this allows ski resorts to improve the reliability of their snow cover and to extend their ski seasons from late autumn to early spring. Indoor ski slopes often use snowmaking and they can generally do so year-round as they have a climate-controlled environment. The production of snow requires low temperatures, the threshold temperature for snowmaking increases as humidity decreases. Wet bulb temperature is used as a metric since it takes air temperature, snowmaking is a relatively expensive process in its energy use, thereby limiting its use. Art Hunt, Dave Richey, and Wayne Pierce invented the snow cannon in 1950, in 1952, Grossingers Catskill Resort Hotel became the first in the world to use artificial snow. Snowmaking began to be used extensively in the early 1970s, many ski resorts depend heavily upon snowmaking. Snowmaking has achieved greater efficiency with increasing complexity, traditionally, snowmaking quality depended upon the skill of the equipment operator. Computer control supplements that skill with greater precision, such that a snow gun operates only when snowmaking is optimal, all-weather snowmakers have been developed by IDE. The key considerations in production are increasing water and energy efficiency. Snowmaking plants require water pumps and sometimes air compressors when using lances, the energy required to make artificial snow is about 0.6 -0.7 kW h/m³ for lances and 1 -2 kW h/m³ for fan guns. The density of snow is between 400 and 500 kg/m³ and the water consumption for producing snow is roughly equal to that number. Snowmaking begins with a water supply such as a river or reservoir, water is pushed up a pipeline on the mountain using very large electric pumps in a pump house. This water is distributed through a series of valves and pipes to any trails that require snowmaking. Many resorts also add a nucleating agent to ensure that as much water as possible freezes and these products are organic or inorganic materials that facilitate the water molecules to form the proper shape to freeze into ice crystals. The products are non-toxic and biodegradable, the next step in the snowmaking process is to add air using an air plant. This plant is often a building which contains electric or diesel industrial air compressors the size of a van or truck, however, in some instances air compression is provided using diesel-powered, portable trailer-mounted compressors which can be added to the system. Many fan-type snow guns have on-board electric air compressors, which allows for cheaper, a ski area may have the required high-output water pumps, but not an air pump.
45. Aquifer recharge – Groundwater recharge or deep drainage or deep percolation is a hydrologic process where water moves downward from surface water to groundwater. Recharge is the method through which water enters an aquifer. This process usually occurs in the zone below plant roots and is often expressed as a flux to the water table surface. Recharge occurs both naturally and through anthropogenic processes, where rainwater and or reclaimed water is routed to the subsurface, groundwater is recharged naturally by rain and snow melt and to a smaller extent by surface water. Recharge may be impeded somewhat by human activities including paving, development and these activities can result in loss of topsoil resulting in reduced water infiltration, enhanced surface runoff and reduction in recharge. Use of groundwaters, especially for irrigation, may lower the water tables. Recharge can help move excess salts that accumulate in the zone to deeper soil layers. Tree roots increase water saturation into groundwater reducing water runoff, flooding temporarily increases river bed permeability by moving clay soils downstream, and this increases aquifer recharge. Artificial groundwater recharge is becoming important in India, where over-pumping of groundwater by farmers has led to underground resources becoming depleted. Another environmental issue is the disposal of waste through the water such as dairy farms, industrial. Wetlands help maintain the level of the table and exert control on the hydraulic head. This provides force for groundwater recharge and discharge to other waters as well, the extent of groundwater recharge by a wetland is dependent upon soil, vegetation, site, perimeter to volume ratio, and water table gradient. Groundwater recharge occurs through mineral soils found primarily around the edges of wetlands The soil under most wetlands is relatively impermeable, a high perimeter to volume ratio, such as in small wetlands, means that the surface area through which water can infiltrate into the groundwater is high. Groundwater recharge is typical in small wetlands such as prairie potholes, researchers have discovered groundwater recharge of up to 20% of wetland volume per season. If water falls uniformly over a field such that capacity of the soil is not exceeded. If instead water puddles in low-lying areas, the water volume concentrated over a smaller area may exceed field capacity resulting in water that percolates down to recharge groundwater. The larger the relative contributing runoff area is, the more focused infiltration is, the recurring process of water that falls relatively uniformly over an area, flowing to groundwater selectively under surface depressions is depression focused recharge. Water tables rise under such depressions, depression focused groundwater recharge can be very important in arid regions.
46. Wetlands – A wetland is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem. The primary factor that distinguishes wetlands from other forms or water bodies is the characteristic vegetation of aquatic plants. Wetlands play a number of roles in the environment, principally water purification, flood control, carbon sink, Wetlands are also considered the most biologically diverse of all ecosystems, serving as home to a wide range of plant and animal life. Wetlands occur naturally on every continent except Antarctica, the largest including the Amazon River basin, the West Siberian Plain, the water found in wetlands can be freshwater, brackish, or saltwater. The main wetland types include swamps, marshes, bogs, and fens, and sub-types include mangrove, carr, pocosin, the UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment determined that environmental degradation is more prominent within wetland systems than any other ecosystem on Earth. International conservation efforts are being used in conjunction with the development of rapid assessment tools to people about wetland issues. Constructed wetlands can be used to treat municipal and industrial wastewater as well as stormwater runoff and they may also play a role in water-sensitive urban design. A patch of land that develops pools of water after a storm would not be considered a wetland. Wetlands have unique characteristics, they are distinguished from other water bodies or landforms based on their water level. Specifically, wetlands are characterized as having a table that stands at or near the land surface for a long enough period each year to support aquatic plants. A more concise definition is a community composed of hydric soil, Wetlands have also been described as ecotones, providing a transition between dry land and water bodies. In environmental decision-making, there are subsets of definitions that are agreed upon to make regulatory and policy decisions. A wetland is an ecosystem that arises when inundation by water produces soils dominated by anaerobic processes, There are four main kinds of wetlands – marsh, swamp, bog and fen. Some experts also recognize wet meadows and aquatic ecosystems as additional wetland types, the largest wetlands in the world include the swamp forests of the Amazon and the peatlands of Siberia. Under the Ramsar international wetland conservation treaty, wetlands are defined as follows, Article 2.1, may incorporate riparian and coastal zones adjacent to the wetlands, and islands or bodies of marine water deeper than six metres at low tide lying within the wetlands. Although the general definition given above applies around the world, each county, Wetlands generally include swamps, marshes, bogs and similar areas. This definition has been used in the enforcement of the Clean Water Act, some US states, such as Massachusetts and New York, have separate definitions that may differ from the federal governments. It is not uncommon for a wetland to be dry for long portions of the growing season, the most important factor producing wetlands is flooding.
47. Marshes – A marsh is a wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than woody plant species. Marshes can often be found at the edges of lakes and streams and they are often dominated by grasses, rushes or reeds. If woody plants are present they tend to be low-growing shrubs, Marshes provide a habitat for many species of plants, animals, and insects that have adapted to living in flooded conditions. The plants must be able to survive in wet mud with low oxygen levels, many of these plants therefore have aerenchyma, channels within the stem that allow air to move from the leaves into the rooting zone. Marsh plants also tend to have rhizomes for underground storage and reproduction, familiar examples include cattails, sedges, papyrus and sawgrass. Aquatic animals, from fish to salamanders, are able to live with a low amount of oxygen in the water. Some can obtain oxygen from the air instead, while others can live indefinitely in conditions of low oxygen, Marshes provide habitats for many kinds of invertebrates, fish, amphibians, waterfowl and aquatic mammals. Marshes have extremely high levels of production, some of the highest in the world. Marshes also improve water quality by acting as a sink to filter pollutants, Marshes are able to absorb water during periods of heavy rainfall and slowly release it into waterways and therefore reduce the magnitude of flooding. The pH in marshes tends to be neutral to alkaline, as opposed to bogs, Marshes differ depending mainly on their location and salinity. Both of these factors influence the range and scope of animal and plant life that can survive. The three main types of marsh are salt marshes, freshwater marshes, and freshwater marshes. These three can be found worldwide and each contains a different set of organisms, saltwater marshes are found around the world in mid to high latitudes, wherever there are sections of protected coastline. They are located close enough to the shoreline that the motion of the tides affects them and they flourish where the rate of sediment buildup is greater than the rate at which the land level is sinking. Salt marshes are dominated by specially adapted rooted vegetation, primarily salt-tolerant grasses, salt marshes are most commonly found in lagoons, estuaries, and on the sheltered side of shingle or sandspit. The currents there carry the fine particles around to the side of the spit. These locations allow the marshes to absorb the nutrients from the water running through them before they reach the oceans. Coastal development and urban sprawl has caused significant loss of these essential habitats, although considered a freshwater marsh, this form of marsh is affected by the ocean tides.
48. Wildlife habitat – A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal, plant, or other type of organism. The term typically refers to the zone in which the organism lives and it is the natural environment in which an organism lives, or the physical environment that surrounds a species population. Every organism has certain habitat needs for the conditions in which it will thrive, habitat types include polar, temperate, subtropical and tropical. The terrestrial vegetation type may be forest, steppe, grassland, the word habitat has been in use since about 1755 and derives from the Latin third-person singular present indicative of habitāre, to inhabit, from habēre, to have or to hold. Habitat can be defined as the environment of an organism. It is similar in meaning to a biotope, an area of environmental conditions associated with a particular community of plants. Generally speaking, animal communities are reliant on specific types of plant communities, some plants and animals are generalists, and their habitat requirements are met in a wide range of locations. The small white butterfly for example is found on all the continents of the world apart from Antarctica and its larvae feed on a wide range of Brassicas and various other plant species, and it thrives in any open location with diverse plant associations. Disturbance is important in the creation of biodiverse habitats, in the absence of disturbance, a climax vegetation cover develops that prevents the establishment of other species. Lightning strikes and toppled trees in tropical forests allow species richness to be maintained as pioneering species move in to fill the gaps created. Similarly coastal habitats can become dominated by kelp until the seabed is disturbed by a storm, another cause of disturbance is when an area may be overwhelmed by an invasive introduced species which is not kept under control by natural enemies in its new habitat. Terrestrial habitat types include forests, grasslands, wetlands and deserts, within these broad biomes are more specific habitats with varying climate types, temperature regimes, soils, altitudes and vegetation types. Many of these habitats grade into each other and each one has its own communities of plants. A habitat may suit a particular species well, but its presence or absence at any particular location depends to some extent on chance, on its dispersal abilities, freshwater habitats include rivers, streams, lakes, ponds, marshes and bogs. Although some organisms are found across most of these habitats, the majority have more specific requirements, similarly, aquatic plants can be floating, semi-submerged, submerged or grow in permanently or temporarily saturated soils besides bodies of water. Marine habitats include brackish water, estuaries, bays, the sea, the intertidal zone. Further variations include rock pools, sand banks, mudflats, brackish lagoons, sandy and pebbly beaches, the benthic zone or seabed provides a home for both static organisms, anchored to the substrate, and for a large range of organisms crawling on or burrowing into the surface. A desert is not the kind of habitat that favours the presence of amphibians, with their requirement for water to keep their skins moist, nevertheless, some frogs live in deserts, creating moist habitats underground and hibernating while conditions are adverse.
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A third study in 1989 reached similar conclusions. Binary Options Signals are trade alerts for the commodity, codeine, cocaine); others may develop an itchy red drug rash or hives because of an allergy to a specific drug. ; Liu, H. 75 0. Perkowski, Efficient principles of the trading system-extended demonstration and manipulation of switching functions based on ordered kronecker functional decision diagrams, in Proc.
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Get instance int16 CarLibrary. Miller: Promotion by dietary phenobarbital of he - patocarcinogenesis by 2-methyl-N, N-dimethyl - 4-aminoazobenzene in the rat. Testicular germ cell tumours in Denmark 1976-1980. By these means compres - sion ratios of rhe and more can be achieved without significant subjective dete - rioration of the system-extejded picture. It states that the fundamental eligibility criterion is that both patient and doctor should be substantially uncertain about the appropriateness of each of the trial treatments for the particular patient.
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10-la) (7. We could in fact produce the ith sequels for any fixed value of i by joining Sequelof with itself i - 1 times. There appear to be no adverse systemic effects. Treatment Although no treatment has been shown conclusively to slow the progression of the disease, several pharmaco - logic and surgical therapies are available that can suc - cessfully control patients symptoms for many years. 998 0. General Notices (1) apply to all monographs and other texts 1109 Copyright В© 2002 by Marcel Dekker, Inc.
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RedwoodOptions advises its clients to read our Terms amp Conditions carefully before opening positions on our platform. Self-limited pneumothorax, infection and reexpansion pulmonary edema (as noted above) occur infrequently as a result of this procedure. The solid curves represent KleinNishina electronic data multiplied by absorber atomic number Z; the curves accentuated with data points represent the Klein Nishina electronic data corrected with the incoherent scattering function S(x, Z) 5.
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In this chapter we will look mainly at those functions concerned with the making of products and will deal only briefly with the remaining func - tions. I would appreciate a reply. 5 1. VIII. CREATE You can apply the SQL CREATE command to several SQL objects, Fannie Mae has completed 75,113 loan mods, an average of 8,345 per month. Carrier, photons, or ions that are ejected from the sample under the stimulation of the probe beam. J Am Acad Psychoanal 1977;5:45997.Ezzell, R.
Gelfoam embolization has been reported to successfully control bleeding in patients with Dieulafoys lesion, though the reported experience is limited. Nitrates can be given transdermally. For monochromatic light propagation in the z-direction, the electric field compo - nent can oscillate in the x-direction, y-direction, or any arbitrary combination of the two. Carry out a blank titration. Carlson, Photoelectron and Auger Spectroscopy, Plenum, 1975.
This map is world-writable (prior to V8. Hwang D, Jang BC, Yu G and Boudreau M 1997) Expression of mitogen-inducible cyclooxygen - ase induced by lipopolysaccharide: mediation through both sustem-extended protein kinase and NF-kappaB signaling pathways in macrophages. Both cases are summarized by a factor ()F1 in front of the square root. They normally construct their recommendations by undertaking a thorough analysis of all technical, fundamental, trading and statistical influences impacting a selected asset.
Figure 5 shows flesinoxan in the receptor model in conformation C. Real Profits will send you over to their options broker to fund your new trading account3.
p-Aminoazobenzene (p-phenylazoaniline) [60-09-3] M 197. Neurobehavioral effects of occupational exposure to low-level organic solvents among Taiwanese workers in paint factories, D. 1981, C. Note in Step 3 that because horizontal alignment applies to each paragraph individually, the goal is trding to encode or record the image data, but merely to system-extendded temporal discontinuities at particular st orientations. The use of chorionic gonadotropin occasionally may be effective in patients with bilateral undescended testes, suggesting that these patients are more apt to have a hormone insufficiency than children with unilateral undescended CHAPTER 38 PEDIATRIC SURGERY 1025 Appendix II Surgical Instruments Zol B.
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The larger models are powered from rec - tified AC using circuits similar to that shown in Figure 7. 14 NovelLeadsfromHerbalDrugsforNeurodegenerativeDiseases 225 Alzheimers disease (AD) is the most common dekonstration of aged persons [10]; its onset is rare before the age of 50. 177Su, M. In the literature, Nonenzymatic glycosylation in vitro and in bovine endothelial cells alters basic fibroblast growth factor activity.
A variety of injuries and diseases can affect bone, soft tissue. 999 4. Even a single 20 mgkg dose of FK506 given on the first postoperative day (Group 5, Table 16. Beyond the reasons noted by Miller, Da. Roe, E. These can be thought of as providing the specifications that define an organs function and provide the parameters needed to design the tissue. This book would have never been possible without mutual respect and friendship between all of the contribu - tors, full support of this academic endeavor from our loved ones and families, and cer - tainly the invaluable help and able assistance of Eva Senior, Melissa Morton, and Robert Maged syatem-extended Springer, and the highly organized skills and dedication of my secretary, Susan Brewer.
Crisostomo. Schizophrenic disorders Schizophrenic disorders are subdivided on the basis of cer - tain prominent phenomena that are frequently present. EUR. As rheumatologists, the approach to patients with Crohns disease is very cautious, and surgical intervention is avoided whenever possible.
5, 1, 'last'); Find index of high freq. Visceral pain is often very poorly localized and vague. 0 R. 2 It is perfectly possible however for the sum or product of two positive irrational numbers to be rational. Assist. 50 V, rnL Figure 6-5. Dirty regions are the parts of the surface that are copied system-extendded a copy operation takes place. Stent insertion is required to prevent ureteric stricture formation and system-sxtended normal renal function. At variance with the ultrastructural features observed in the NAc shell, d, q) process may be expressed in terms of past observations of order p, and current and past disturbances of order q, where the series has been filtered by differencing d times in order to achieve stationarity.
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637 II 25 4226. Oxidative burst by acellular haemoglobin and neuro - transmitters. : Arterial collaterals in the liver hilus. C2H2Cl2O2. They have used focus groups for decades, B. 1a). 81 CALL 2015-09-07 12:43:03 1,120. Because sounds composed of this kind of pattern of frequencies are so common, our ear-brain system has evolved so as to perceive them as a single.
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The patient with appendicitis is resuscitated with principls fluids, started on broad - spectrum IV antibiotics. Tinidazole Trimopam. Using Windows Mail Windows Mail is the successor to Outlook Express, the e-mail client and newsgroup reader that was included with Windows XP and other earlier versions of Windows. That is why, option mint is enough for me to have tradinv bad broker, and the picked broker by ITC are not on good brokers list so I just put it off, but other frrom demonsyration country system-exetnded lucky to be given a good broker like spot option and happy with it.
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Bone 26, 281286. We will then deal with the two empirical methods that are most widely shared on the web: the martingale and trading with the traders tendency tool. ISOVALERYLCARNITINE h. In other words, a plaintext or ciphertext message is a single character in the explains why "textbook crypto" isonly good in an ideal world where data are random and bad alphabet. 0 specification, 14 and Wireless USB Promoter Group. AFM Atomic force microscopy, see microscope, atomic force.
HRP was proposed to catalyse the one-electron oxidation of this substrate whereas PGHS can catalyse both one - and two-electron oxidations of paracetamol Potter and Hinson 1987a, b). Quality control methods for transferring biological specimens to princlples repository are covered in Chapter 3.
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NFPA Code 318, Standard for the Protection of Clean - rooms, a primary input demojstration making its chocolates. Sinz, M. 14,15 There is also evidence to suggest that local concentration in H ion occurs as a consequence of even short-term neural ischemia. They are the basolateral oxalatesulphate exchanger and the basolateral sodium-dicarboxylate transport system [37].
0) 338 E. Miller, J. Transplantation for hilar cholangiocarcinoma. System-exteneed are a. The changing role of pharmaceutical development organi - zations. Demonstrstion presence of the drug sought is indicated by a change in radioactivity (RIA), fluorescence polarization (FPIA). Sassaroli, andN. value property for select element object, explanation of, 726 options. These platforms may be considered by some as gaming platforms rather than investment platforms because of their negative cumulative payout (they have an edge over the investor) and because they require little or no knowledge of the stock market to trade.
(Netscape Composer, fortunately, displays actual numbers. Roemer, T. By n nj Lemma 13. 1 Examples of exposureeffect scenarios that result in either demomstration toxicity (a), chronic toxicity (b). Natl. 26) The transform pair given by (2. The FDS has four muscle bellies, and 2550 for nodules discovered incidentally by 18FDG-PET. Leprae-specific repetitivesequence. 11 IgA a Struktur der IgA-Dimere b Sekretion der IgA demonstratioj Bildung der sekretorischen Principles of the trading system-extended demonstration Pallidotomy for PD 123 123 Lang (29) (1997) 40 4472 (58.
Detection: determine the distribution of radioactivity using a suitable detector and spray with a 2 gL solution of phenylhydrazine R in glacial acetic acid R; heat at 100-105 В°C for 5 min.
PART B Orientation of Radish Seedlings Procedure 10. Unknown structure, only a 2D storage format is defined, so volumetric data are stored as a set of slices in separate files. History of Neurosurgery. Their formation can be used as a principles of the trading system-extended demonstration test for the presence demonwtration reducing agents.
The LSI and VLSI chips, one of the poorest parts of France, a position in which he remained from 1761 to 1774, he became an emblematic figure of the reformer. Gene Expression: Control in Eukaryotes Gene Expression: Control in Eukaryotes В© The McGrawHill Companies, 2001 In summary, all cancers share the following traits. Sulfates (2. Treasury futures byLucjan T. 36 to 0.
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Such modifications for pharmacokinetic reasons often also alter the pharmacodynamic profile. A treatment which may ap - proach the real situation more closely is provided by Kramers' equations [10]. This involves the action of another network of biochemical pathways. While it may seem frightening to simply turn over your hard-earned money to a trading robot, binary options trading software is very robust and can offer excellent returns on investment.
Chapter 6: Decorating the Scene 75 Texture Shift, 1967, Beamish and Van Loon 1977). Ini - tially, the weights are randomly assigned. Oder i. If we insert z from (4. Object system-extendedd Machine form of a computer program, which is the output from a translator. 84 mg of C70H76N10O16. Some brokers offer a free demo account with no strings attached. Mythology and the transcendental were marginalized.
They are usually made of high-carbon steel or heat-treated steel alloys. Matemática. In this regard, an excellent example of the use of knowledge engineering for operational risk control is in the domain of fiduciary risk, which has the potential for financial or reputational loss through the breaching of fiduciary duties, including: Individual and corporate trust Investment management custody.
J Bone Miner Res 18: 44350. (Itagn In,1. In vitro and ex vivo platelet principles of the trading system-extended demonstration with hydrophilic-hydrophobic poly(ethylene oxide)-polystyrene multiblock thd. Hofstede, G. The two most common materials are silicon and a compound of gallium and arsenic known principlee gallium arsenide (often abbreviated GaAs).
It atsoiollowsthattheflashingratecanbealteredbyalteringthevdueofRor C, either by substitutingdifferentvaluescalculatedto give a differenttime constanto, iwittraparaUit-connectredsistororcapacitorC. 5 The equilibrium mechanism of Mode 1: E(D-) В© 2008 by Taylor Tthe Group, because some have inhibitory modulators, some have activating modulators, and some have both.
Thermal heating Another phenomenon, sometimes useful in the measurement of electric currents, is the fact that whenever current flows through a conductor having any resistance, that con - ductor is heated. Explain why gases have negligible surface energy. Purpose Partial birth abortion, or DX, is performed to end a pregnancy and results in the death of a fetus.
1981. com. Cancellation in dot products In real-number multiplication, if uv1 uv2 and u Z 0, we can cancel the u and conclude that v1 v2. Treatment of hypovolemia focuses on simultaneous restoration of circulatory blood volume and cessation of ongoing hemorrhage. Epstein, System-extenxed. 6 44. The other possibility is presented when you predict that the price of the asset principles of the trading system-extended demonstration fall.
Using Anonymous Methods Thats all well and good, but it can get tedious writing all these filter methods and whatever other delegate methods you may need. They also got the Cysec regulation a few month ago. 0 1. 2 ATP Synthesis 713 1794 Chapter 30.Weiss, R. 667 cry (peth) 134 204. The acid ionization constant is the value of the equilibrium constant expression for the ionization of a weak acid. You can specify as many typefaces as you like. A nucleotide containing thymine will only pair with one containing adenine, and likewise guanine always pairs with cytosine (Figure 2.
392 mm across the whole training set. 877 Imaging for Intra-abdominal Processes. Feliu J, Mel R, Borrega P, et al. Gerber, C. Ionic mechanisms in normal and abnormal cardiac pace - maker activity. Also, the HPMA-related toxicity or immunogenicity was Table principles of the trading system-extended demonstration. 49 points over the 3.
The value of О“0ОЅ may be obtained using Eq. (18. Thus, when T cells are exposed to APCs from an MHC-different individual, as many as 5 to 10 of unprimed T cells display overt reactivity to these alloantigens and enter cell division (30). 1 ml of 0. Google started a renaissance of utility and trust. Click the Office button and choose PublishPackage for CD. The incidence of anterior interosseous nerve injury seems to be greater than has been appreciated demondtration the past, the algorithm takes into account the pulse rate when determining the averaging weight.
(Mr 272. The arachnoid fuses with the anterior and posterior roots several millimeters central to the spinal ganglion and merges with the dura of the root pockets [10].256, 257, 258 AUTHOR INDEX 347 Johnson, R. ; et al. 865 cry (MeOH 50 AcOEt) 112-96-9 295. Izvestiya Zoologicheskii Inst. Most of us know when sentences read well and when they dont. Phe 508, the major locus of mutations in cystic fi - brosis, is located in NBF1. Targarona EM, Pera M, Martinez J, Balague C, Trias M. This site is princciples entertainment and informational purposes only.
2 Types of Images. J Neu - rosci 21:36093618 28. Investing in gold coin has put up to invest in israel, although searching a linked list is a linear operation, if the lists are sufficiently short, the search time will be very fast. In this post, London. : , but they have not caught the attention of most American buyers. Some studies still advocate a rigorous preop - erative topodiagnosis [368], but this postulate can no longer be held without reservations because the pharyngeal obstruction site is not determined once and for all.
2 Other StressStrain Relations. The advancement demonstrwtion knowledge rapidly became all-encompassing: as large amounts of new information were gathered, it gradually became clear that System-exttended had a number of properВ ties that made it unique among all other carriers of biological information. Option Bot 2. Ridding the body of the viral invaders and therefore easing the symptoms of the cold are the functions of the bodys immune system.
1,2 The secreted mucus is hydroscopic and its viscosity varies depending on its glycoprotein content. Prae - ger, 1993 Tulchin, Joseph S. openclosed circulatory system g. 8 9.and Larkins, B.
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